Language Research

Abstract The purpose of the present research is to investigate the placement order of different types of adjectives in the sentence in Persian language based on Functional Discourse Grammar. Therefore, in this study, FDG will be considered in determining the arrangement of different types of adjectives in the sentence in Persian language. According to the principles of FDG, presenting a pattern in the arrangement of adjectives in a sentence in Persian language, in which the order of the adjectives in sentences does not follow a certain rule, is another goal of the present research. Although in Persian language, the order of adjectives does not follow a specific rule, the principles of FDG show that the type of the adjective determines that in what level of the hierarchical layer of FDG each adjective is produced and then based on what order it is mapped on morphosyntactic templates. In this study, the method of mapping the different types of adjectives on morphosyntactic templates in four absolute initial, second, medial and final positions and infinite relative positions in FDG was considered. This study is based on a descriptive-analytical method and the examples are taken from Persian adjectives. Examining the samples in this research shows that although the Persian language does not seem to have a particular order for the placement of adjectives in the sentence, the order pattern of adjectives in the sentence based on the mechanisms of FDG is also suggested for Persian language, since each adjective is produced in a special layer. The results indicate that the placement of adjectives in Persian language is based on the type of adjective and the production of each type of adjective takes place in its respective hierarchical layer. The results also show that FDG is an appropriate and efficient method for explaining the placement of adjectives in a sentence in Persian language and provides a suitable model for the placement of adjectives in a sentence in Persian language

Abstract  Persian and Arabic languages ​​have had phonetic, grammatical, and lexical influences on each other in terms of vocabulary exchange, and they have similarities and differences in terms of phonetic system; Arabic is today considered one of the six official languages ​​of the United Nations and the first language of the Islamic world that learners from different countries, especially Iran, attempt to learn. Arabic learners make numerous phonetic errors at different stages of learning Arabic as a foreign language. Since the phonetic system of the learners' native language is imprinted in their minds by default, it is a natural phenomenon for a non-native learner to make errors during the learning of the next language. At the phonetic level of the Arabic language, there are sounds that differ in pronunciation and pronunciation from their corresponding sounds in Persian; Among the Arabic letters " Θ ،ħ، ð، sˤ، dˤ، tˤ، ðˤ، ʕ، ɣ، w"  which, due to their absence in Persian, have become the closest equivalent sounds in the Persian phonetic system. Therefore, Persian-speaking Arabic learners do not have sufficient skills in the field of listening and speaking as language output, but due to the lack of comparative analysis between the different levels of Arabic and Persian, they usually experience doubts, fear, and ultimately despair of learning this language when using Arabic. The results of the study in the present study indicate that the learner who is learning a foreign language, due to his adherence to his mother tongue, unconsciously tries to maintain the structure of the previous language and shows resistance to new findings, which are the phonetic system of the language. The purpose of this research is: First, to define and elaborate on the contrastive analysis, then to explain the phonetic system of Persian and Arabic, then to explain the types of interference, and finally to provide solutions and strategies to prevent interference. Based on the contrastive analysis at the phonetic level, we concluded that after describing and then comparing and contrasting the two languages, as well as the hierarchy of difficulties in pronouncing sounds, the sounds at level four (extreme distinction) create the greatest difficulty in teaching Arabic sounds to Persian speakers, because at this level, a completely new item that has no similar item in the mother tongue must be learned; therefore, our greatest focus in learning the phonetic system of the target language should be on these sounds

Abstract In understanding the culture and language of any geographical features, it is very important to examine the toponyms. In this study, it has been tried to investigate and classify the places of names of Markazi province in Iran based on the model of Tenet and Blair (2021), who conducted a survey on the places of Australian national. The placesnames studied in this research are the residential placenames in Markazi province including the names of villages based on the official statistics of the National Portal of the Statistical Centre of Iran in 2016. 225  placenames of villages in this province were purposefully selected from among 379 villages based on the factors of linguistic distribution, population density, distance, and existing historical background of the villages. The model of each village is determined approximately based on 7 categories of descriptive, associative, evaluation, occurrent, copied, eponymous and innovative. The findings show that the descriptive category with about 61.08% has the highest percentage and includes 137 placenames.  Then, in order, the other categories are placed: the associative category with 47 place names at the limit of 20.85%, the eponymous with 20 cases at about 9.79%, and the occurrent with 18 cases at about 7.84% and the evaluative category with one placename about 0.44%. The categories of copying and invention have been without any placenames

Abstract  The present study examines the cognitive aspects of Persian and Arabic languages in the domain of taste and its resulting product, flavors, with the aim of understanding part of the perception of Persian and Arabic speakers derived through the gustatory domain. In this context, the study conducts a cognitive analysis of expressions that reflect the influence of the physiological taste function of the tongue on spoken language. The research method is descriptive-analytical and is conducted within the framework of the cognitive semantics approach. The study of the data shows that: 1. The mentioned languages primarily utilize the gustatory domain to conceptualize the idea of "testing and evaluation" and its associated outcomes, such as feelings of satisfaction and pleasure or dissatisfaction and pain; 2. The cognitive reality of the gustatory domain appears different from the external and conventional reality of the sense of taste. Externally, tasting is a sensory and temporary experience where the sole receptor is the tongue, and it is only relevant to edible substances. However, the cognitive mechanism uses this physical-taste experience to understand and perceive the environment and abstract concepts, "tasting" many of our experiences and environmental phenomena! For example, tasting the words of others, as in «شیرین‌سخن» ("sweet-tongued"), or describing someone as «گوشت‌تلخ» ("bitter-fleshed"). In this cognitive mechanism, the tongue is not the only receptor of taste; hearing can also create a taste, as in «با این خبر کاممون تلخ شد» ("this news left a bitter taste in our mouth"), and the heart "tastes" the sweetness of union, as in «به کام دل رسید» ("it reached the heart's desire"). Moreover, tasting is not limited to edibles; the eyes can be "شور" ("salty"), temperament can be "تند" ("hot"), and the face can be "ترش" ("sour"). The importance of understanding the non-edible world through the lens of edibles is highlighted by the fact that the set of correspondences within these metaphors allows us to think about our experiences and the phenomena around us using the knowledge we have about flavors. For example, since "بانمکی" (being salty) is desirable, interacting with a person perceived as "بانمک" (salty) is also understood as pleasant and desirable. In this way, the "saltiness" of the person in question can overshadow other undesirable traits they may have, just as the "saltiness" of a type of food can make its harmful aspects seem appealing. In conclusion, flavor serves as a phenomenological and evaluative perspective on the nature of our experiences as a target domain

Abstract At the beginning of the 18th century, with the act of the parliaments of England and Scotland, the four countries of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland were formed the Great Britain, and the British identity was added to the people of these countries. Along with this union and with the advancement of sciences, the British took the first steps to become a colonial power. But in the first place, it was necessary to form the idea of empire in the minds of the British; Therefore, English authors and travel writers started to compose works whose themes were the discovery of distant lands, colonization and confrontation with the natives. One of these people was Daniel Defoe, who in his novel Robinson Crusoe (1719), which is one of the texts subject to reading in the course Novel 1, B.A. in English Language and Literature in Iran, depicted the adventures of Robinson Crusoe. In the novel, he managed not only to establish a colony for himself and achieved great wealth, but also became a slave owner in Latin America in the cotton fields. Therefore, this research aims to analyze the above novel in light of postcolonial criticism to reveal the colonial discourse in the work, that is, the conquest of the natives and their reduction to others and colonial subjects

Abstract One of the consequences of the progress of science and technology in recent decades is the immediate recording and dissemination of film and sound from various social events. A clear example of this claim is the observation of various videos and sounds from crime scenes in the media. Sometimes sound is the only clue left by criminals at crime scenes. This has prompted forensic experts to seek precise and scientific analysis of sound in order to determine the identity of the speaker and confirm or refute their hypotheses. In forensic phonetics, paying attention to the phonetic characteristics of vowels in different manifestations of spoken language such as dialects, styles, etc. is of great importance. In this study, the vowel space of two speech styles, readable and clear, in Persian has been investigated and compared within the framework of phonetic phonetics. The main objective is to analyze the phonological differences between these two styles for use in forensic applications such as speaker identification, speech reconstruction, or criminal analysis. The research is descriptive-analytical, and the data were obtained by analyzing the first and second structural frequencies of vowels extracted from audio samples. The audio samples included the speech of 25 Persian speakers (male and female) in two speech styles: readable and clear, which were recorded and collected using a microphone. Python and R software were used to extract and analyze the data. The results showed that clear speech has a wider vowel space than readable speech and provides greater accuracy for forensic purposes. It was also found that in both readable and clear styles, women have a larger vowel space than men, and the ability to identify women's voices is greater than that of men. In the study of inter-speaker variation, it was also found that there is greater coherence in women's vowel production and greater dispersion in men's vowel production, and that clear style enhances this dispersion in men and weakens it in women. Therefore, gender and speech style interactively affect the amount of inter-speaker variation, and round vowels, especially /u/, show the greatest sensitivity to these factors.