Language Research - Articles in Press

The Evolution of Verbal Prefix mi in Persian Language

ّFataneh Yousefi; Mojtaba Monshizade; Farah Zahedi

Volume 11, Issue 2 , February 2021, , Pages 271-285

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2020.310217.666642

Abstract

This paper explores the evolution of the inflectional verbal prefix mi and its diverse roles from the Old Persian through the Middle Persian language, to the New Persian. In the earlier ... Read More This paper explores the evolution of the inflectional verbal prefix mi and its diverse roles from the Old Persian through the Middle Persian language, to the New Persian. In the earlier stages of Persian, verbal prefixes played varied roles, such as the adverbial function. Verbal prefixes could extend or restrict the principal meaning of the verb, or even change it altogether. The majority of verbal prefixes could originally be used both as adverbs and prepositions. However, the middle period of the Persian language witnessed a gradual reduction in the functional roles verbal prefixes played, as the language drifted toward analyticity. For this reason, verbal prefixes were no more able to change the verb meaning as they used to in the earlier stages. In other words, they changed to be fixed prefixes which were not generative anymore in middle Persian and the later stages of the language. In fact, verbal prefixes were grammaticalized and accepted various grammatical roles. This prefix is the contemporary Persian mi that represents the durative or habituative aspect. This inflectional prefix mi originates from old *ham-aiwa through the middle Persian hamē which means “always” in Middle Persian. Hamē also represents continuity and habits, while it does not have a fixed place in the sentence having been attested in a variety of places. In classical Persian literature texts, hamē is attested in the forms of hami and mi. The two classical Persian forms gradually moved closer to the verb, and were finally attached to the verb to be grammaticalized as an inflectional prefix. Contemporary mi represents not only continuity and habit, but also plays a modal role to signify unfulfilled wishes and unrealized assumptions by prefixing a past verb. Thus, the adverbial *ham-aiwa has gone through a long process of grammaticalization, and has become an inflectional prefix to signal continuity and habits aspect and also irreal modality.

Durational Parameters of Speech Rhythm, A Measure for Detection of the Persian Speakers’ Use of Disguise?

Maral Asiaee; Mandana Nourbakhsh

Volume 11, Issue 1 , October 2020, , Pages 1-23

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2020.298600.666587

Abstract

Using the auditory-acoustic approach, the present study examines the possibility of using durational acoustic parameters of speech rhythm for detecting the Persian speakers’ use ... Read More Using the auditory-acoustic approach, the present study examines the possibility of using durational acoustic parameters of speech rhythm for detecting the Persian speakers’ use of Azeri as a form of voice disguise. To do so, continuous speech of 5 speakers of Standard Persian and 5 speakers of Azeri, Tabrizi variety, were chosen for the acoustic and statistical analysis after completing the validity procedures. All Persian speakers were monolingual and all Azeri speakers were bilingual speakers of Azeri and Persian, who spoke Azeri as their mother tongue and Persian as their second language. Each Persian speaker was asked to narrate a lifetime experience once in Persian (Persian- Persian data), and once as an imitation of Azeri (Persian- Azeri data). Azeri speakers were also asked to narrate a lifetime experience once in Azeri (Azeri- Azeri data) and once in Persian (Azeri-Persian Data). Persian-Azeri data is the type that is considered as the disguised data in this survey. The recorded data were then annotated in five tiers: segment, CV-segment, CV-segment interval, CV-interval and syllable. In order to control the effect of any unwanted variable, one minute (±5 seconds SD) of each sound file was extracted for further acoustic and statistical analyses. A Praat script, DurationAnalyzer, was used to automatically calculate the acoustic correlates of durational parameters of speech rhythm. These parameters are: %V (the proportion which speech is vocalic), ΔC (ln) (standard deviation of the natural-log normalized duration of consonantal intervals), ΔV (ln) (standard deviation of the natural-log normalized duration of vocalic intervals), nPVI- V (rate-normalized averaged durational differences between consecutive vocalic intervals) and syllable rate. Results revealed there was a significant difference between the proposed types of data and that%V and syllable rate best discriminated between them; however, none of the above-mentioned parameters were significantly different between Persian-Azeri and Azeri-Persian data.

The Use of Words Dictated by the Academy of Persian Language and Literature: a Quantitative and Qualitative Study of Iranian Course-Books in Theoretical Branch (1400)

Seyede Ziba Behrooz

Volume 13, Issue 1 , November 2022, , Pages 1-29

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2022.335573.666766

Abstract

The use of dictated words in texts and related issues is as important as their production in the Academy of Persian Language and Literature and other formal or informal institutions. ... Read More The use of dictated words in texts and related issues is as important as their production in the Academy of Persian Language and Literature and other formal or informal institutions. As long as words are not put into the text, their usability, linguistic and semantic capabilities are not revealed, and the user does not understand the word as well. Moreover, his level of linguistic knowledge remains hidden in the case of not applying the words. Also, on the other hand, texts are measured in terms of structure originality by word replacement. Since the use of equals in textbooks has been on the agenda for reviewing the Educational Writing and Planning Organization, research on the quantity and quality of that use has received the attention of researchers. This research concentrates on some of the problems in textbooks regarding using of these words and their quantity. The research texts include the books of the elementary course and the first and second years of the theoretical branch of the 1400 edition. The research method is based on studying and examining the content of texts from different aspects of form, linguistics, semantics, and teaching of these equivalents in books and finding out the problems and causes of its occurrence. The purpose of this study is to refine the Persian language from the harms caused by the influence of foreign words and applied errors; Such as inappropriate context, inappropriate foreign word, incorrect category structures, ambiguity, redundancy, and incorrect application of dictated words. Therefore, according to the findings of this study, most of the problems are in the field of syntactic relations between words and also the inconsistency in using the correct way of inserting equals in books. From a quantitative point of view, these cases include more general words with abstract meanings than specialized and objective words. Therefore, it is necessary to review most textbooks for proper use of this group of equals. This study will help to smooth the path of the use of dictated words in Persian language and its fluency, both in the field of word selection and in the field of contextualization, in textbooks.

Discourse Disorder in Right Hemisphere Brain Damaged Patients: Evidence from Relative Clause Processing

Mahla Arianpour

Volume 13, Issue 2 , May 2023, , Pages 1-22

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.352485.666818

Abstract

Based on clinical observations, it has been determined that damage to the right hemisphere may cause some communication disorders. These non-aphasic communication disorders lead to ... Read More Based on clinical observations, it has been determined that damage to the right hemisphere may cause some communication disorders. These non-aphasic communication disorders lead to impairments in the pragmatic, prosodic, lexical-semantic and discourse aspects of language that affect social participation. In right hemisphere damaged patients (RHD), discourse may be affected at both the perceptual and expressive levels. Right hemisphere damage can affect language-related skills. The present study aimed to investigate discourse disorder in adults with right hemisphere brain damage through the processing of relative clauses. The research is descriptive-analytical and quantitative. The statistical population included 10 healthy adults and 10 Persian-speaking adults with right hemisphere damage, who were selected in a convenience sampling way. The research tests included screening tests and tests for measuring the processing speed of relative constructions, which were done through DMDX software. Data analysis was done by the statistical methods such as variance analysis, independent t-test of two independent groups, and paired sample t-test. In subject relative constructions, the difference in processing speed of categories, relative clauses and relative sentences between the two experimental and control groups was not significant (P>0.05); However, in the object relative constructions, this difference in processing speed between the two experimental and control groups was significant (P<0.05). In subject and object constructions preceded by an initial context, the difference in processing speed of categories, clauses and sentences between the two experimental and control groups was significant (P<0.05). In the experimental group, the difference in processing speed of subject and object relative clauses and sentences with and without an initial context was significant (P<0.05). The research findings provide evidence for the negative effect of right hemisphere brain damage on discourse skills. Likewise, people with right hemisphere brain damage have more difficulty in processing complex language constructions referential items such as relative constructions compared to healthy peers.

Analyzing Subject - Verb Agreement Errors of Persian Learners in the Framework of Distributed Morphology

Mahya Ahmadi; Azita Abbasi

Volume 14, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 1-22

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.361098.666846

Abstract

Researchers have paid a lot of attention to collecting and analyzing the language errors. Language learners commit various mistakes during the stages of language learning, and Subject ... Read More

Analyzing the Epic Romantic Narrative Structure of "Bijan and Manijeh" and Explaining its Verbal Dimensions from the Perspective of Waltsky and Labou

Nahid Jafari

Volume 14, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 1-24

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.367328.666864

Abstract

Semiotics is a tool that can be used to examine the mechanisms of formation and production of meaning in discourses. The logical and narrative discourse is the dominant discourse on ... Read More

The study of brain function during the understanding of conventional and unconventional metaphors

Ladan Javaheri; amer gheitury; Mehdi khodamoradi; Shahab Moradkhani

Volume 13, Issue 2 , May 2023, , Pages 23-53

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.353638.666822

Abstract

The present era is the era of science's control over human beliefs. Man's need to know the nature of himself and the world around him has led him to believe in phenomena based on objective ... Read More The present era is the era of science's control over human beliefs. Man's need to know the nature of himself and the world around him has led him to believe in phenomena based on objective evidence, and this has caused cognitive science to become the favorite field of many scholars today. One of the main fields of cognitive sciences is linguistics, which is based on the study of language. Since language can be considered as a tool to represent the mind; therefore, cognitive linguistics goes beyond the study of the apparent structure of language and investigates very complex fundamental operations that play a major role in the development of language grammar, conceptualization, speaking and thinking. The theoretical approach of this field is based on experimental observations and scientific experiments of psychology and neuroscience, and its purpose is to understand how linguistic information is represented in the mind, to learn language and to understand and use it. In recent decades, the analysis and explanation of metaphor understanding processes has been the focus of many linguists. One of the main challenges in this direction is to find a solution that can explain the processes involved in understanding different types of metaphor. In this research, considering the mechanism of language understanding in the brain, we examined two different groups of conventional metaphors and unconventional metaphors. This research is descriptive-analytical and based on the articles, books and research done in the field of brain connection with metaphor understanding process. The results of this research show that understanding conventional metaphors causes activity in the left middle temporal gyrus, the right fusiform part and the inferior frontal gyrus. While, the fusiform part of the right side is related to the integration of visual and semantic information. On the other hand, unconventional metaphors continuously activate the left fusiform gyrus and the right precone.

The Study of N-P-N Tripartite Exocentric Compounds in Persian: An Analysis within the Framework of Construction Morphology

Ghazaal Asadi; Sahar Bahrami-Khorshid; Ardeshir Maleki-Moghadm

Volume 14, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 23-47

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2021.313793.666665

Abstract

In many languages, compounding as a word-formation process is more productive than the other processes. According to this fact, compounding has a special role in the morphology of languages ... Read More In many languages, compounding as a word-formation process is more productive than the other processes. According to this fact, compounding has a special role in the morphology of languages and this process has been concentrated by grammarians and linguists. Compound words of a language can be classified in various ways. In one of these classification methods, compounds are divided into two major categories: exocentric compounds and endocentric compounds. This research is an attempt to explore the N-P-N tripartite exocentric compounds of Persian within the framework of Construction Morphology. The research examines the systematic semantic relations, the possible schema of the N-P-N construction, its subschemas, and the hierarchical structure of this construction in the lexicon of Persian speakers. The data under the study have been collected from the reference book “Farhang-e Farsi-ye Āmiyāne” (Persian Slang Dictionary) written by Abolhasan Najafi which totally includes 88 tripartite compounds. The approach of this research is construction-based and tries to examine the metaphorical and semantic content of the above-mentioned compounds and to justify their word-formation pattern of them based on the concept of “construction” and “constructional schemas”. The method of this research is descriptive-analytical and the result of the research demonstrates that all the compounds that are examined in this research can be encoded by 10 semantic relations: property, person property, time, location, state, thing, condition/situation, person, action and repetition of time. Each of these semantic relations and their differences has been represented as a schema which is a pairing of form and meaning. The results also evinced that there is a direct relation between the semantic transparency of a construction and its frequency and productivity in Persian, there are 70 N-be-N compounds in the corpus which is considerably more than other types of compounds. Therefore, it is concluded that the frequency of the N-P-N compounds is rooted in their semantic transparency.

The Study of Derived Words Ending in '-ār' Suffix from the Viewpoint of Construction Morphology

Sahar Bahrami-Khorshid; Saeedeh Ghandi

Volume 11, Issue 1 , October 2020, , Pages 25-48

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2020.264867.666402

Abstract

All languages in the world use different mechanisms to create new words. Derivation and compounding are two morphological processes whose main function is the formation of new word-forms. ... Read More All languages in the world use different mechanisms to create new words. Derivation and compounding are two morphological processes whose main function is the formation of new word-forms. In Persian, derivation is one of the dynamic and widely used processes of word formation. In the realm of derivation, Persian language has many prefixes and suffixes that can be attached to existing words in order to create new words. One of these suffixes is "-ār" which is considered as one of the semi-productive suffixes of Persian language; however, the observations reveal that it has become a productive suffix in today's Persian. The main purpose of this research is to study the derivational construction [x-ār] in Persian within the framework of Construction Morphology (CM). It makes use of the notion of ‘construction’, which is defined as a pairing of form and meaning, to describe the properties of complex words. Therefore, on the basis of a construction-based approach and regarding a descriptive-analytic method, the authors try to represent the systematically semantic varieties of "-ār", possible schemas and subschemas and also the hierarchical structures, based on which, [x-ar] construction has been achieved. The data analyzed in this study has been gathered from three sources: Reverse Dictionary (Zansu) (Keshani, 1993), Persian Linguistic Database (PLDB) and FarsNet. Then, the extracted words have been examined in Farhang-e Bozorg-e Sokhan (Anvari, 2002) and obsolete items have been excluded. The findings of the research show that “-ār” has seven different meanings (functions) and thus we can consider it as a polysemous suffix. Its polysemy is not explainable at the level of words, but at the level of abstract schemas; hence, it is called “constructional polysemy”. The results of this study indicate that "entity with relation R to SEM" is the prototypical meaning of [x-ār] which is the most abstract correlation among meaning and form in Persian language.

The Neural Response to the SyntacticProcessing of wh-Complements in Persian within Adult Verbal Entries, Based on Lexical-Functional Grammar

Delangiz Dalir; Mehdi Purmohammad; Arsalan Golfam; Reza Khosroabadi; Mahnaz Karbalaeisadegh

Volume 14, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 25-53

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.365010.666855

Abstract

In Persian, which adheres to an SOV word order, complement clauses or prepositional objects typically follow the direct object in their conventional position. However, there is the ... Read More In Persian, which adheres to an SOV word order, complement clauses or prepositional objects typically follow the direct object in their conventional position. However, there is the potential to move this phrase to different positions within the sentence. However, this phrase can be moved to other positions in a sentence. Multiple explanations exist for this phenomenon. One such explanation is within Lexical-Functional Grammar, suggesting that the relocated constituent finds its place within lexical entries. More specifically, event-related potential (ERP) was used to investigate this processing in the centro-parietal part of the brain (for the for N400 and P600 components) following the Friedrici model of language comprehension (1995). This research aims to investigate how wh-complement displacement in Persian is processed within the verb's lexical entry using event-related potentials, rooted in the syntactic-semantic role structure. Specifically, this study focuses on the N400 central-anterior component, as introduced by Friedrich in the field of language processing in 1995. Given Persian's rich inflection, which permits various word orders, we examined four distinct positions for complement clauses in the sentences under study, constructing 50 sentences for each condition. These sentence conditions were thoughtfully designed based on consistent word length and syntactic category. To delve deeper into the verb's lexical entry, we presented sentences in a structured format on a display screen and provided comprehensive explanations to participants before the experiment. Participants were instructed to articulate words without any lip or facial movement. Brain responses were recorded as event-related potentials during reading and subsequently analyzed using MATLAB software with EEGlaB. The results reveal that complement clause displacement triggers distinct brain responses within the lexical entry of verbs, marked by an increased N400 amplitude in the central-anterior region when the complement clause is in its canonical position. These findings lead to the conclusion that the movement of the complementizer in Persian follows a Lexical-Functional grammar within the neurophysiological model put forth by by Friedrich's model of syntactic processing .The main conclusions to be drawn from these bits of evidence are the displacement of the Wh-complement in lexical entries of verb in Persian has a neurophysiological basis.

Interaction of Phonology and Morphology in the Pronunciation of Present/ Future Forms of the Verb "stan"(to want) in Colloquial Persian

Bashir Jam

Volume 13, Issue 1 , November 2022, , Pages 31-55

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2022.341188.666782

Abstract

The present/ future forms of the infinitive verb "XAstan" (to want) are made by adding the prefix /mi-/ and the inflectional endings /-am/, /-i/, /-ad/, /-im/, /-id/, and /-and/ to ... Read More The present/ future forms of the infinitive verb "XAstan" (to want) are made by adding the prefix /mi-/ and the inflectional endings /-am/, /-i/, /-ad/, /-im/, /-id/, and /-and/ to the verb /XAh/. These forms include [mi.XA.ham] (I want), [mi.XA.hi] (you (singular) want), [mi.XA.had] (s/he wants), [mi.XA.him] (we want), [mi.XA.hid] (you (plural) want), and [mi.XA.hand] (they want) respectively. The pronunciation of these forms in colloquial Persian has decreased from three syllables to two syllables. As a result, they are pronounced [mi.XAm] (I want), [mi.XAj] (you (singular) want), [mi.XAd] (s/he wants), [mi.XAjm] (we want), [mi.XAjn] (you (plural) want), and [mi.XAn] (they want) respectively. This research aims to identify and analyze the phonological processes causing the various pronunciations of these forms. The primary cause is the deletion of /h/ in /XAh/ at the word level. Then at the post lexical level in which the prefix /mi-/ and inflectional endings are added, /h/ deletion leads to hiatus. The hiatus of the vowel /A/ and the vowel /a/ in the endings /-am/, /-ad/, and /-and/ is resolved by /a/ deletion. However, the hiatus of the vowel /A/ and the vowel /i/ in the endings /-i/, /-im/, and /-id/ is resolved by inserting [j] as an intervocalic consonant. The phonological processes that occur at the post lexical level include /d/ deletion, [n] insertion, and syllabification. Since phonology and morphology interact in the application of these processes, their analyses are done using Striatal Optimality Theory (SOT) at word and, post-lexical levels. Striatal OT which draws heavily on the tradition of Lexical Phonology is a hybrid model of OT in which the insights of Lexical Phonology and Morphology are broadly combined with parallel OT. It posits three distinct levels or strata including stem, word and post lexical levels. Striatal OT assumes that, in each phonological cycle, the mapping from input to output is effected by means of parallel constraint-based computation in the manner of OT.

A Survey Analysis of the Use of Kurdish Kinship Terms and Persian Borrowed Equivalents (Based on Data from Kalhori Kurdish)

Shahram Jamali; Habib Gowhary

Volume 11, Issue 1 , October 2020, , Pages 49-72

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2020.295585.666597

Abstract

This study set out to examine the use of Kurdish kinship terms comparing with Persian borrowed equivalents in Kalhori Kurdish. Matras (2009), Treffers-Daller (2010) and Muysken, (1987) ... Read More This study set out to examine the use of Kurdish kinship terms comparing with Persian borrowed equivalents in Kalhori Kurdish. Matras (2009), Treffers-Daller (2010) and Muysken, (1987) were frequently cited and adopted as theoretical model. Methodologically, this study is quantitative and descriptive. To achieve the goals, a list composed of almost all Kurdish kinship terms together with Persian borrowed equivalents were distributed among the participants to choose from. Based on gender, age and educational backgrounds, the subjects were divided to eight groups: young male/ female educated; old male/ female educated; young male/ female uneducated; old male/ female uneducated participants. For each group, 10 people were selected randomly. Therefore, a total number of 80 participants were selected to respond to the provided list through interview. For each kinship term, different contexts were provided and then the participants were asked to choose either the local kinship term or the borrowed one from Persian. To analyze the data, SPSS (version 23) was employed. As for the statistical test, ANOVA was employed to find any meaningful relation between the three independent variables of the study (age, gender and educational background) and the participants’ choice among the Kurdish kinship terms and Persian borrowed ones (dependent variable). Unlike the predictions of the theory of borrowing hierarchy (Muysken (1987), the results indicated the Kurdish kinship terms were used much more frequently than their (more prestigious) Persian equivalents in Klahori Kurdish. Different groups employed at least 54.5% to 100% Kurdish kinship terms. Since, no Kurdish lexical gap was found in the provided list, the results were in line with the predictions of the theory of lexical gap (Matras, 2009). Regarding the attested variations among different groups, the statistical employed test (ANOVA) showed that education and age play a meaningful role, while, sex was found to be statistically insignificant.

The Intonation of Ta’arof in Persian

Marzieh Sadat Razavi; گلناز مدرسی قوامی

Volume 14, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 49-75

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.354881.666826

Abstract

Ta’arof has a special place in the Iranian culture and its linguistic repesentations are various and considerable. Since Ta’arof expressions are used in interactive contexts ... Read More Ta’arof has a special place in the Iranian culture and its linguistic repesentations are various and considerable. Since Ta’arof expressions are used in interactive contexts by native speakers of Persian, it is expected that the intonation patterns of these expressions be affected by discourse factors and vary as a function of context. The present study adopts Brazil’s (1975, 1978, 1997) and Brazil et al.’s (1980) approach to intonation with the main purpose of investigating the intonation patterns of Ta’arofs in Persian. The distinguishing feature of Brazil’s approach to intonation is its focus on the effect of discoursal context on intonation patterns each with a meaning of its own. In his approach, “meaning” does not refer to attitudes such as “surprised” or “expectant”, nor to grammatical meanings such as “interrogative” or “declarative”. Rather, it refers to the interactive role of intonation i.e., constant evaluation of discourse by the speaker and choosing the appropriate intonation pattern to achieve coherence and cohesion in discourse. To this end, the intonation features of tone and the prominence level of the onset (key) and tonic (termination) syllables were annotated and analyzed using the Praat software in 29 Ta’arof expressions in the Iranian series Hayula. Results showed that the dominent tone in these expressions is level or fall. Keys were mostly mid or high, while terminations were mostly mid. Considering the fact that intonation patterns of each Ta’arof expression depends on its situational and discoursal context, the Taarof expression ̒Gorbunet beram̓ ‘(lit.) may I be sacrificed for you’ with 4 different representations was chosen and analysed as one of the most frequent Ta’arof expression in the corpus of this study. Results showed that Ta’arof expressions although fixed lexically and syntactically, show different intonation patterns due to the influence of social norms such as politeness, power relations, the prediction of listener’s judgment, and listener’s agreement expectation.

Object Omission in Persian: A Role and Reference Grammar Analysis

Faezeh Salimi; Vali Rezai

Volume 13, Issue 2 , May 2023, , Pages 55-81

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2022.328325.666733

Abstract

The aim of this research is to investigate object omission based on Role and Reference Grammar. Object omission is a valency-reduction process in which a verb which is transitive in ... Read More The aim of this research is to investigate object omission based on Role and Reference Grammar. Object omission is a valency-reduction process in which a verb which is transitive in nature, appears without its object. This study, will indicate semantic, syntactic and pragmatic representation of the aforementioned construction with respect to the presented concepts in Role and Reference Grammar including the layered structure of the clause, logical structure, semantic macroroles, information structure, activation status of the referents and linking algorithm. Explaining object omission in the framework of RRG, indicates one of the advantages of this grammar. Although RRG attends to the interaction between form and function, it declines the abstract layers or elements in the syntactic analysis. Accordingly, in this grammar the syntactic structure of the clause is represented based on what is explicitly applicable. Therefore, RRG is not faced with any restriction in explaining object omission and regarding what is explicitly presented in the sentence, it behaves with transitive verbs which omit their objects as intransitive ones. The most specific attainments of investigating object omission in the framework of RRG are as follows: In the layered structure of a clause with omitted object, one of the arguments of the core will be reduced and the syntactic representation will be like an intransitive verb with just one argument (subject) in the core. The logical structure of such verbs, likewise, will be represent with just one argument (x), unlike transitive verbs which has two arguments (x, y) in logical structure. Regarding the aktionsart type of the verbs, the findings indicate that activities are the most frequent verbs in object omission construction. the reason is that the second argument of activity verbs is not a macrorole and therefore can be omitted. Describing object omission with regard to information structure and activation status of the referents in RRG shows that as in the aforementioned construction the object is omitted, it cannot be a focal or topical element and its referent can be considered as an accessible one. Since it is the hearer’s knowledge of the world that makes it possible to understand the notion of the omitted object. Moreover, in this study, regarding object omission construction, linking algorithm from semantic to syntax and from syntax to semantics has been provided. The bidirectional diagrams show that the linking principles of selecting and linking undergoer in both directions will not exist in the objectless sentences.

Investigating Object-Oblique Alternation in Persian Aktionsart

Vali Rezai; Zhaleh Makaremi

Volume 14, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 55-77

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.354726.666825

Abstract

Object alternations involve different realizations of arguments, and are represented in three forms, including locative alternation, dative shift, and object-oblique alternation. Objects ... Read More Object alternations involve different realizations of arguments, and are represented in three forms, including locative alternation, dative shift, and object-oblique alternation. Objects in object-oblique alternation are expressed in two different structures without fundamental changes in meaning. The second participant, in a transitive predicate, is either stated in a direct object position or in a preposition construction. The present paper investigates object-oblique alternation in Persian Aktionsart, based on Role and Reference Grammar. The objective of this study is twofold; firstly, to determine the im/possibility of object-oblique alternation in different classes of verbs, and secondly, to specify various readings of this alternation in verb classes consisting of states, activities, achievements, and accomplishments. The data are extracted from Persian newspapers, websites, and daily conversations. Data analysis denotes that some state verbs, including cognition, emotion, and possession verbs can be represented in object-oblique alternation. The alternate forms of cognition and possession verbs, refer to the kind of object in question. Alternation in sub-classes of activity verbs, that is, performance and consumption verbs, display total-partial interpretation. The alternative forms of creation verbs in this class, in the case of having a non-resultative verb, denote the kind of objects in question. Directed perception verbs, regardless of the parameter of object individuation, are represented in object-oblique alternation. Some achievement verbs may also be used in this alternation. Accomplishment verbs are rarely used in object-oblique alternation, except in cases where depending on the context, total-partial interpretation is intended. Generally speaking, the predicates that undergo object-oblique alternation share some characteristics; they are mostly non-state ones, their subjects are mainly agentive, and the objects are mostly low or non-affected. Furthermore, the verbs, which are more prone to object-oblique alternation, are chiefly non-resultative, and do not lead to fundamental changes in the object.

The Evolution of the Verbal prefix / Ba- / Dibaji in Comparison with Persian

Havva Hhajaidi; Gholamreza Dinmohammadi; Ali Afkhami; Gholamhossein Karimidostan

Volume 13, Issue 1 , November 2022, , Pages 57-87

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2022.344500.666787

Abstract

Dibaji dialect is one of the linguistic types along the Caspian Sea, which has a morphological and syntactic similarity with the Mazandaran language, which is one of the northwestern ... Read More

The Cognitive Study of the Effect of Cultural Artifacts on the Metaphorical Comprehension of Time Concept in Persian

Amir Ali Khoshkhoonejad; Abbas Ali Ahangar; Pakzad Yousefian; Mehrdad Mazaheri

Volume 11, Issue 1 , October 2020, , Pages 73-94

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2019.275105.666470

Abstract

In different cultures, people use space to make linguistic representations of time. In general, there are two different approaches toward deictic time expressions: a Moving Time Metaphor ... Read More In different cultures, people use space to make linguistic representations of time. In general, there are two different approaches toward deictic time expressions: a Moving Time Metaphor and a Moving Ego Metaphor. In the Moving Time metaphor, time is conceived as moving forward, while in a Moving Ego Metaphor, a moving observer is conceptualized. The purpose of this research is to explore the effect of cultural artifacts on metaphorical comprehension of time expressions in Persian language. In this regard, following Duffy and Feist (2014), the present study was carried out based on the ambiguous question: Wednesday's Meeting suggested by McGlone and Harding (1998). The first experiment directly explores the relationship between responses to the Wednesday's Meeting question in two calendar and meta-language conditions. The second experiment examines the special cultural relations between space and time and the role of the Persian orthography direction in the time reasoning. In the third experiment, based on circular representations of time, the role of the analog clock in resolving the ambiguity is examined from the Noon's Meeting question. This was done by comparing the responses of the participants with the clockwise clock and counterclockwise clock. To this end, 40 Persian speakers were selected from the students of Sistan and Baluchestan University. Chi-square test (using SPSS software) was used for statistical analysis. The findings of this study show that the viewpoint of individuals about the motion of events in time is not only due to their experience in space movement, but also is rooted in their interactive patterns of cultural artifacts as well. In addition, the results show that in interpreting ambiguous metaphorical time expressions, individuals automatically access spatial representations of time and use them. The participants who encountered with reverse space-time mappings had an interference in their responses, reflected through their time reasoning. Consequently, they provide a more precise form of representations of time than merely symbolic speech. Hence, cultural artifacts play an important role in the cognitive process of embodiment, which not only help to recognize embodiment, but also affect it.

Acquisition of Recursive Locatives in Persian Speaking Children: An Experiment

Hossein Rouhalamini Najafabadi; Ali Afkhami

Volume 14, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 77-101

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.354733.666835

Abstract

Recursive structures, structures whose representation is produced by the repeated application of a syntactic rule, have been observed and investigated extensively in languages. By means ... Read More Recursive structures, structures whose representation is produced by the repeated application of a syntactic rule, have been observed and investigated extensively in languages. By means of an experiment, the present study investigates the acquisition of recursive locatives in Persian-speaking children and provides new evidence on the subject of children's learning path, which lends its support to theoretical insights about the representation of this structure in the mind. Different languages do not uniformly deem recursive structures well-formed. Furthermore, in languages that consider the same recursive structure well-formed, it is possible for the acquisition age of this same structure to be different in children speaking different languages. Experiments report differences in the age that English and Japanese speakers acquire recursive locatives. In these studies, early acquisition of locative structures that employ identical prepositions is observed, as well as early acquisition in the language that marks the recursive structure by an overt functional element, namely, Japanese. Explaining these observations, Nakato and Roeper (2021) propose a three-step path in the acquisition of recursion: 1. Search for overt morphological elements 2. Search for overt lexical elements 3. The ability to interpret recursive structures without the presence of identical overt elements. In the recursive structure of the locatives of Persian, similar to Japanese and contrary to English, we witness an overt functional element: Ezafe. The presence of Ezafe in this structure qualifies as the first stage of the proposed acquisition path, and therefore it is predicted that the acquisition of recursive locatives in Persian will occur early. This article takes advantage of the presence of the overt element in Persian recursive locatives and by designing and implementing an experiment in accordance with the previous experiments, investigates the acquisition of locative recursion among Persian-speaking children and by means of the collected data examines the proposed acquisition path above.

Investigating the Compound Words Ended to “Negar” Stem in Persian Language: A Cognitive Approach

Zahra Hasanpuran; Ali Alizadeh

Volume 14, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 79-104

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.363973.666852

Abstract

One of the word formation processes in Persian language is the compounding process, which speakers use in a productive way to create words with new meanings. This process contains at ... Read More One of the word formation processes in Persian language is the compounding process, which speakers use in a productive way to create words with new meanings. This process contains at least two components, both of which are involved in the construction of meaning. The aim of this article is to analyze the polysemy of compound words ended to “negar” stem in Persian with a cognitive approach. This analysis is done in the framework of Booij's construction morphology theory (2010, 2016), and the data of the research is extracted from the Zansu Persian dictionary (Keshani, 1993), the dictionary of Farhangistan authorized vocabularies, and Bijankhan's corpus. According to Booij's construction morphology theory (2010, 2016), language words are linguistic constructions and these linguistic constructions are the unit of construction morphology analysis. In Booij's construction morphology theory (2010, 2016), construction schemas are patterns that clarify the form and meaning of a construction and determine how other constructions are derived from this pattern. In order to investigate the polysemy of compound words ended to the "negar" stem, first the construction schemas and sub-schemas related to these words are identified, and then their polysemy network in drawn. The results of the research show that at the lowest level of the schema network of the compound words ended to "negar" stem, there are eleven different sub-schemas, seven of which have a nominal base, and four have an adjectival base. Also, the frequency of the sub-schema with an adjective base is much lower than the frequency of the sub-scheme with a nominal base. According to the study of the body of research, the combination of a noun with the "negar" stem creates different meanings such as "writing", "describing", "studying", "depicting", and "measuring" and the meanings of "writing" and "depicting" is realized with both human and non-human agents. The combination of an adjective with the "negar" stem also creates the "depicting" meaning which is realized with two human and non-human agents. Finally, four subschemas with the meaning of "depicting with a special instrument", "depicting a person with special characteristics", "depicting with a special manner", and "depicting from a special location" are results of the hierarchical classification of the subschemas of compound words with an adjective base that ends to “negar” stem. The polysemy of compound words ended to the “negar” stem can be explained at the level of these construction schemas which are more or less abstract.

Different Structures of Floating and Non-Floating Quantifier Constructions in Persian

Safa Sadeghi Ashrafi; َAli Darzi

Volume 13, Issue 2 , May 2023, , Pages 83-104

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2021.320488.666704

Abstract

Quantifiers basically occur adjacent to a nominal phrase. However, sometimes the quantifier and the nominal phrase appear apart in sentences. This phenomenon is referred to as quantifier ... Read More Quantifiers basically occur adjacent to a nominal phrase. However, sometimes the quantifier and the nominal phrase appear apart in sentences. This phenomenon is referred to as quantifier floating (Q-floating). The most prominent approach to Q-floating is stranding analysis, according to which the quantifier and the adjacent nominal phrase together make up a single constituent, and in the course of derivation, the nominal phrase moves from this constituent to a higher position, stranding the quantifier in situ; in other words, stranding analysis considers the floating quantifier construction as the result of a transformation from non-floating quantifier construction. This paper addresses the structure of floating and non-floating quantifier constructions, provides evidence from Persian to indicate the independence of their structures, and argues for the oblige toriness of each structure. The floating quantifier is shown to be a late adjunct to a copy of its associated DP: in the derivation leading to quantifier floating, a DP moves from its θ-position and then receives a QP as an adjunct, and then it moves again to a higher position and strands the quantifier in situ. According to Chomsky’s (2013) Labeling Algorithm, when QP is an adjunct to DP, the movement of DP and it’s leaving the QP behind is obligatory; to put it another way, floating quantifier construction is obligatory. As opposed to floating quantifier construction, in non-floating quantifier construction, QP is not an adjunct. In this construction, the DP is the complement of the quantifier head. Given Labeling Algorithm, this construction is obligatorily motivated, too. In addition, since quantifier phrase is the topmost nominal phrase in such constructions, it is a phase; and in order for the DP to move out of this phase, it needs to move first to the specifier position of the QP, but this movement is considered too short. For this reason, DP cannot move off the QP in non-floating quantifier constructions

Analyzing the Verb Borrowing of Persian from Matrix Language Frame Model View

abdolhossein heydari

Volume 13, Issue 1 , November 2022, , Pages 89-108

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2022.337940.666775

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to study the verb borrowing of Persian based on matrix language frame model. Myers-scotton (1993-2006) proposed matrix language frame model due to eminent role ... Read More The aim of this paper is to study the verb borrowing of Persian based on matrix language frame model. Myers-scotton (1993-2006) proposed matrix language frame model due to eminent role of one language in the bilinguals’ speech. Only one language as matrix language determine morpho-syntactic patterns of sentences containing the elements of two languages according to uniform structure principle of matrix language frame model. The data is corpus-based and they have been collected from Persian speakers’ speech in different contexts. The research method is descriptive-analytic. At first, Persian verb and its inflectional morphemes were classified into: content morphemes (non-verbal elements in compound verbs and bare form of the verb in simple verbs) and late outside system morpheme (inflectional morphemes of the verb and light verbs) according to differential access hypothesis or 4-M model. Then the data were analyzed based on the principles and hypothesis of matrix language frame model. Persian is matrix language in all data due to uniform structure principle of matrix language frame model. Persian acting as matrix language has caused the inflectional morphemes of its verb have been added to non-Persian verbs entered Persian verb construction through light verb construction and indirect insertion process. Matrix language has caused inflectional morphemes of Persian verb activated and selected at formulation level to assign Persian morpho-syntactic frame on the sentences. So non-Persian verbs have been activated and selected at conceptual level as content morphemes. These content morphemes are realized as infinite verbs in Persian speakers’ speech to carry meaning. It seems there is a relation between different morpheme nature (their selection at different abstract level) and their transferring to other languages. Myers-scotton (1993-2006) emphasizes this relationship. As he has predicted matrix language frame model is efficient in explaining language contact phenomenon so more expansive studies can be based on it.

Relative Clauses in Arabic and Persian

Bassam Rahma; Hayat Ameri; Najme Dorri; Gholamhosseyn Gholamhosseynzade; Eessa Mottaghizade

Volume 11, Issue 1 , October 2020, , Pages 95-117

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2019.285133.666529

Abstract

Typology is a branch of linguistics which studies the structural similarities between languages, regardless of their history. Linguistic studies have proven that different languages ... Read More Typology is a branch of linguistics which studies the structural similarities between languages, regardless of their history. Linguistic studies have proven that different languages in the world have similarities which called Language Universals. Study of Word Order is one of the most important topics in Typology of language, because of languages are more diverse in this respect, and this diversity is a tool for typological studies. One of these diversities is sequence of Relative Clause and Noun. Topologists have identified two types: Relative Clause – Noun (Rel N) and Noun - Relative Clause (N Rel). In their view, these two sequences correlate with the arrangement of the main constituents of language in particular (verb and object).Consequently, according to their predictions, (N Rel) sequence is predominantly in VO languages, and (Rel N) sequence in OV languages. In the present article, we study relative clause in Persian and Arabic languages in order to clarify what are the characteristics of relative clause in both languages and what are the similarities and differences between them. In addition, the research seeks to study the sequence of noun and relative clause in the light of the views of Topologists. The research method is descriptive-analytical and the sentences are collected from different official texts of both Persian and Arabic languages. Over ten thousand sentences were studied .The findings of the study showed that Persian and Arabic languages follow the dominant global pattern in the sequence of relative clause and noun, meaning that both languages have the sequence (N Rel). In this context, however, the Persian language does not follow the predictions made for the ending verbs or OV languages. While the Arabic language is consistent with the predictions presented for VO languages. Also another result of this study is that the phenomenon of relative clause movement in Persian language is possible but not in Arabic.

Non-Pro.Making Persian Topicalization Based on Functional Discourse Grammar

Mohsen Taheri; Ali Alizadeh; Hamed Mowlaei Kuhbanani

Volume 14, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 103-133

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.344562.666788

Abstract

The main purpose of this study is to explain the word order of topicalized constituents in non-pro.making persian topicalization based on Functional Discourse Grammar. Since this grammar ... Read More The main purpose of this study is to explain the word order of topicalized constituents in non-pro.making persian topicalization based on Functional Discourse Grammar. Since this grammar does not believe in concepts such as movement, we will also seek to explain this process in base-generated procedures. Therefore, in this study, in order to achieve the above goals, the method of mapping the linguistic elements of sentences containing non-pro.making Persian topicalized constituents in morphosyntactic templates in four absolute initial, second, medial and final positions and infinite relative ones presented in Functional Discourse Grammar was considered. This study is based on a descriptive-analytical method and the examples are taken from selected samples of Persian speech and written texts, which after introducing the mechanisms of this grammar,have been analyzed based on the principles of this theory. The method of determining the order of constituents used in the present study is the dynamic method of FDG that is inspired by the method of determining the word order of Greenberg. In this approach instead of three categories of subject, object and verb, respectively, the concepts of actor, undergoer and predicate, determine the word order of the languages of the world. The results indicate that in marked constituents such as topicalization, considering the communicative intention of the speaker, various elements including ,thematic and non-thematic elements and even predicates can be topicalized and on the other hand, considering that, based on the principles of this grammar, the topicalized constituent in the interpersonal level is given priority in entering morphosyntactic templates, so the topicalization process is not the result of movement, but the topicalized element is produced in base-generated procedures in the same position. The results also show that Functional Discourse Grammar is an appropriate and efficient method by referring to the three principles of iconicity, domain integrity and functional stability in determining the constituent arrangement of sentences containing non-pro.making Persian topicalization.

Primary and Secondary Predicate Ellipsis in Complement and Adjunct Small Clauses: A minimalist Approach (Phase Theory)

Shabnam Majidi; Fatemeh Bahrami; Mazdak Anoushe

Volume 13, Issue 2 , May 2023, , Pages 105-134

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.352971.666819

Abstract

The phenomenon of the head- and constituent ellipsis is one of the most discussed issues that grammarians have given a different name to each of its types. The present paper deals with ... Read More The phenomenon of the head- and constituent ellipsis is one of the most discussed issues that grammarians have given a different name to each of its types. The present paper deals with a specific type of ellipsis within the clause, which is referred to, in the tradition of generative grammar, as the Right Node Raising, and it is distinct from the deletion of the second coordinate clause, namely gapping. In the aforementioned ellipsis, the verb alone, or together with its dependents, is removed from the first coordinate clause. While examining such structures, the present article analyzes the ellipsis from the coordinate clauses which contain a complement or adjunct small clause, and therefore, due to the simultaneous deletion of the primary predicate (from the main clause) and the secondary predicate (from the subordinate clause), they represent more syntactic complexity of its own. In the analysis, which is based on the assumption of two processes, namely the “verb movement out of the vP” and the “object shift”, the discussed structures are divided into two types: coordinates with a common subject and ones with a non-common subject; and thus, a different explanation is provided for each kind. In coordinates that have a common subject and host a small clause in their argument structure, in fact, two vPs, and not two clauses, are coordinated, and the process known as Across-the-Board movement, which is applied to the verb and the subject of the clause, leaves some gaps in the first coordinate clause in place. In contrary, the ellipsis phenomenon is applied to coordinates with non-common subjects. Since this phenomenon occurs at PF level, it is expected that its occurrence is related to the phase domain. In this research, based on the Phase Theory, as well as the empirical evidence of the Persian, we argue that in the latter structures, ellipsis occurs at the higher phase stage, and the elements that have already reached the edge of the phase are pronounced at the phonetic level, following the Phase Impenetrability Condition.

Determining the Typological Place of a Language on the Left/Right-Branching Spectrum

Maedeh Golchin arefi; Gholamreza Dinmohammadi

Volume 14, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 105-129

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.359837.666844

Abstract

In this article we answer two questions: first, how we can use Dryer (1992) as a tool to determine the typological place of a language in the left/right-branching spectrum. Second, ... Read More

Volume 14 (2023)

Volume 13 (2022)

Volume 12 (2021)

Volume 11 (2020)

Volume 10 (2019)

Volume 9 (2018)

Volume 8 (2017)

Volume 7 (2017)

Volume 6 (2015)

Volume 5 (2014)

Volume 4 (2013)

Volume 3 (2012)

Volume 2 (2012)

Volume 1 (2010)

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