Language Research

The Semantic Interaction of Negation with Epistemic and Deontic Ppossibility and Necessity in Persian Modal Verbs

Gholamreza Medadian

Volume 13, Issue 1 , November 2022, , Pages 109-138

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2022.348760.666807

Abstract

This descriptive-analytic study aimed at investigating the semantic interaction of negation with the epistemic and deontic possibility and necessity senses of a select group of central ... Read More This descriptive-analytic study aimed at investigating the semantic interaction of negation with the epistemic and deontic possibility and necessity senses of a select group of central Persian modal verbs (i.e., tavanestan, shodan, momken budan, emkan dashtan, bayestan and lazem budan). Among these modal verbs, the first four express the notion of possibility and the rest express necessity. Necessity and possibility constitute the core of modality domain. Modality as a semantic category mainly deals with speaker’s attitude or opinion regarding the state of affairs. Epistemic and deontic modality are the two main types of modality. The former expresses speaker’s judgment regarding the truth or falsehood of propositions while the latter deals with speaker’s influence on actualization or non-actualization of actions. Modal verbs are among the commonly used modal forms in Persian. Negation has logical and semantic interactions with modality (especially, possibility and necessity notions). Negation appears in Persian modal verbs and main verbs as ن- prefix. In this study, the views of Palmer (1995) and de Haan (1997), who both investigated the interaction of negation and modality from typological point of view, were used as the theoretical framework. The examples used as evidence in our analyses were mainly extracted from the corpus of Academy of Persian language and literature. The study showed that the interaction of negation prefix with the modal verbs of possibility domain (i.e., tavanestan, shodan, momken budan and emkan dashtan) is “regular” in the sense that there is correspondence between the form and meaning of the negative modal verbs. Thus, a negative modal form negates the modality and a negative main verb negates the proposition. In the necessity domain, the interaction of lazem budan with negation prefix is, also, “regular”. In fact, the co-occurrence of negation prefix with bayestan negates the proposition (not the modality). In addition, bayestan cannot express the epistemic “lack of necessity” of the truth of a proposition and deontic lack of necessity for actualization of an action. Other modal verbs (e.g., lazem budan and modal verbs of the possibility domain) express these notions through “modal suppletion” or “logical suppletion” strategies. Bayestan is a “uniscopal” modal form interacting only with “narrow scope” negation while other modal verbs investigated in this study are “biscopal” as they interact with both narrow and wide scope negation. Except bayestan, for which “modal suppletion” and “logical suppletion” strategies are employed to express wide scope negation, for other verbs investigated in this research “negation placement” strategy is used to distinguish between narrow and wide scope negation.

The Ranking and Interaction of Mollin’s Constraints in Persian Irreversible Binomials

Ali Arabani Dana; Adel Rafiei; Batool alinezhad

Volume 11, Issue 1 , October 2020, , Pages 119-140

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2020.263717.666398

Abstract

The term “binomials” in the literature refers to the sequence of two words pertaining to the same form-class, and ordinarily connected by some kind of lexical link. In this ... Read More The term “binomials” in the literature refers to the sequence of two words pertaining to the same form-class, and ordinarily connected by some kind of lexical link. In this term, “nomi” (which means “name”) doesn’t refer to names only, but it is a cover term and can refer to names, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and conjunctions. One important point in binomials relates to the order of constituents. In this regard, there is a model called Constraints’ Model which was proposed by Mollin (2014). The Constraints’ Model has some constraints which determine the order of constituents in binomials. The constraints of this model are: semantic-pragmatic constraints, nonmetrical-phonological constraints, metrical-phonological constraints, and frequency and alphabetic order constraints. The constraints in the model compete with each other to determine the order of constituents in the binomials. In this model, there is the possibility that one constraint can determine the order of constituents in some binomials, but it is possible that it can’t determine the order of constituents in all binomials. The reason for separating these four constituents from each other is that they have differences from each other. In this model, the constituents interact with each other and they have often significant correlations with each other. The paper aims to analyze Persian binomials based on Constraints’ Model and to determine their interactions with each other and finally to rank the constraints. To do the research, the data, including 534 Persian binomials, were analyzed based on Constraints’ Model. Then the model’ constraints were ranked according to Persian binomials, finally the competition and interaction of the constraints were determined in the Persian language. The results showed that non-metrical-phonological constraints can explain the most of Persian binomials, so they rank first, but semantic-pragmatic constraints can explain the least of Persian binomials, so they rank last.

Pragmatic Aspects of Mægær (‘unless’/’but’) as a Discourse Marker in Persian

Shahin Shirzadi; Mohammad Amouzadeh; Seyed Alo Kalantari; Vali Rezai

Volume 12, Issue 2 , December 2022, , Pages 123-146

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2021.323183.666712

Abstract

Discourse marker is a functional-pragmatic category, not affecting truth conditions of the sentence. These linguistic elements encode procedural rather than representative or propositional ... Read More Discourse marker is a functional-pragmatic category, not affecting truth conditions of the sentence. These linguistic elements encode procedural rather than representative or propositional meanings. Discourse markers have been the subject of increasing attention in recent years, and have been investigated in different theoretical frameworks. Among the vast variety of approaches toward interpreting the role of discourse markers, one major approach is rooted in Grice's suggestion. By elaborating the concept of conventional implicature along the previously well-known concept of conversational implicature, Grice (1989) treats some discourse markers as being instances of the former. He also conceptualized the concept of non-central or higher-level speech acts to account for the contribution of these discourse markers to the meaning of their host sentence. In this article, we will initially describe the characteristics of the discourse marker "magar" (‘unless’/’but’) in terms of prototypical characteristics of discourse markers proposed by Brinton (1996) and Heine (2013). We then present a diachronic exposition of its semantic development from having a propositional meaning to a word with a textual and expressive function in contemporary Persian. This explanation is in accordance with Traugott’s (1986) analysis of semantic change toward more subjectification. Ultimately, we have applied a Gricean interpretation to this Persian discourse marker, as a higher-level speech act. It is argued that "magar" (‘unless’/’but), in addition to its function as a connective element (which connects two textual units or encrypts the connection between the propositional content of an utterance and its previous context), can help with the performance of a non-central speech act with the illocutionary force of indicating opposition. Given the fact that speech acts, in Searl's terms, are the subject of the quadruple felicity conditions, namely Preparatory, Sincerity, Propositional content and Essential conditions we have shown how these conditions can be actualized (or applied) when it comes to higher-level speech acts.

Investigating the Concept of Mother Tongue in the Educational Documents and Examining its Manifestation in Society Based on the Critical Discourse Analysis Approach

Behboud Yarigholi; Roya Monsefi

Volume 14, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 131-160

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.362434.666850

Abstract

One of the most prominent features of Iranian society is its linguistic and cultural pluralism. Archaeological and historical findings prove that since thousands of years ago various ... Read More One of the most prominent features of Iranian society is its linguistic and cultural pluralism. Archaeological and historical findings prove that since thousands of years ago various ethnic groups with multiple cultures and languages have lived in Iran. The policymakers of each society adopt different approaches to the issues of linguistic and cultural diversity depending on the circumstances, which sometimes leads to challenges in different fields. Among the most challenging fields in which these issues are involved is the field of education. In such diversity, the centralized educational system becomes more apparent. Currently, there are about 200 independent countries in the world and it is estimated that there are about 4,000 to 5,000 different languages. The present study examines the position and representation of the concept of the mother tongue in educational documents and its reflection and manifestation in society based on the critical discourse analysis approach. For this purpose, the reference documents as well as the approved documents in the structure of Iran's educational system were analyzed. Then, the representation of the concept of education in the mother tongue was analyzed by considering the ideas of trustees, policymakers, politicians, and experts. With the use of a descriptive-analytical method and relying on Fairclough’s (1995) model of critical discourse analysis, the results implied that despite the claims mentioned in the reference documents and the explicit and implicit references of the educational documents on the importance and necessity of teaching in the mother tongue, the dominant discourse of Beneficiaries and stakeholders in this field are using words with nationalistic and ideological empirical value and creating a false dualism of "national identity" and "mother tongue education". Considering education in the mother tongue as an obstacle to the creation of national identity and a threat to national unity has caused the position of education in the mother tongue to decline and despite having theoretical, scientific support and legal requirements, there is no will to implement it in practice.

Constructive Process of Affirmative Negation and Its Practical Appearances in Persian and Kurdish Languages

Farhad Mohammadi

Volume 13, Issue 2 , May 2023, , Pages 135-160

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.355201.666830

Abstract

There is a generative constructional process in both Persian and Kurdish languages, through which some syntactic constructions can be transformed from a simple expression to an emphatic ... Read More

Investigating the Process of Postverbal Appearance of Restrictive Relative Clauses in Persian

Ali َAmoushahi; َAli Darzi

Volume 14, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 135-153

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2022.334309.666761

Abstract

The present article mainly aims to investigate the process through which relative clauses appear postverbally and distant from the noun they modify. To do so, relative clauses are first ... Read More

Coordination in Grammatical Phrases from Different Categories: Cognitive Grammar Perspective

Saba Hasheminasab; Sahar Bahrami-Khorshid

Volume 13, Issue 1 , November 2022, , Pages 139-166

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2022.331126.666748

Abstract

In this study we have investigated the coordination of constructions from different grammatical categories, with a Cognitive Grammar approach. Haspelmath (2007: 1) and Langacker (2009:349) ... Read More

Agreement in Ergative Constructions in Hawrami; A Minimalist Approach

Zaniar Naghshbandi; Behrouz Chamanara

Volume 11, Issue 1 , October 2020, , Pages 141-164

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2020.306857.666626

Abstract

Accounting for the verbal agreement and its interaction with case marking in both accusative and ergative alignments have always been an interesting line of investigation in generative ... Read More Accounting for the verbal agreement and its interaction with case marking in both accusative and ergative alignments have always been an interesting line of investigation in generative syntax. Two main approaches have been proposed in this regard within the general framework of Minimalism. The first one, referred to as the classic approach in the available literature, envisages agreement as a parallel mechanism with case marking, taking place in narrow syntax. The second approach, generally known as dependent case-marking approach, not only separates agreement from case marking, but also analyzes it as a two-step phenomenon being unfolded both in narrow syntax, through Agree-Link, and PF, through Agree-Copy. Employing the theoretical apparatus of the dependent case-marking approach, the present paper seeks to study the patterns of verbal agreement in ergative constructions in Hawrami. The explanatory adequacy of this very approach is specifically observed in the theoretical analysis of a special type of ergative constructions in which the direct object takes the form of a possessive NP. The manner through which the possessor of the direct object is overtly manifested in these ergative constructions can determine the outcome of the verbal agreement: if the possessor is expressed via person-marker clitics, the verb agrees in person and number with the possessor, however, if the possessor is realized as an overt NP, the verb agrees with the possessed element. With the intention of analyzing this pattern, it is argued that in both cases the potential targets which the head of T, and consequently the main verb, can agree with are determined in narrow syntax, through Agree-Link while the ultimate form of the agreement affix is determined post-syntactically via Agree-Copy. More specifically, we maintain that Agree-Copy has a direct access to the internal structure of potential targets, and this very fact plays a vital role in determination of agreement patterns.

Investigating Achievement and Accomplishment Aspects in Kalhori Kurdish: A Minimalistic Approach

Habib Gowhary; Mehrangiz Baravarde

Volume 14, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 155-181

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.359124.666842

Abstract

The present research has investigated the difference between achievement and accomplishment aspects in Kalhori based on the minimalist approach of Mc Donald (2008). According to this ... Read More The present research has investigated the difference between achievement and accomplishment aspects in Kalhori based on the minimalist approach of Mc Donald (2008). According to this approach, the internal subject plays a central role in the aspectual interpretation of achievement and accomplishment predicates. Likewise, the presence and interpretation of event structure (ES) and object-to-event mapping (OTE) features play a decisive role in derivation of aspectual predicates. The analysis of the research data showed that in Kalhori, achievement and accomplishment predicates having internal subjects with the OTE feature [-q], have a minimal aspectual interpretation domain; and the final subevent feature [fe] It is not included in the interpretation range. However, internal subjects with the feature [+q] in the achievement and accomplishment predicates, cause an extensive domain of aspectual interpretation and also cause interpretation of the final subevent feature [fe].Therefore, it was found that in Kalhori that the presence of the feature [+q] on the internal subject is a necessary condition for telicity of achievement and accomplishment predicates. In addition, in Kalhori, the difference between achievement and accomplishment aspects was determined in this way that in the achievements the initial subevent feature [ie] on the aspectaul group has not dominance and c-command over the feature of the initial subevent feature [fe]. But, in the accomplishments, the initial subevent feature [ie] on the aspectaul group has dominance and c-command over the final subevent feature [fe], which is placed on VP.This situation refers to the time spent between the beginning and the end of the accomplishment events, which unlike the achievement events the beginning and end are simultaneous.In fact ,in the accomplishment predicates between two points of initial event and final event occurs the passage of time,according to this ,there is a dominance and c-command between the initial subevent feature [ie] and the final subevent feature [fe]. But in the achievement predicates between two points of initial event and final event not occur the spend of time,so it is not a dominance and c-command between two features of the initial subevent and the final subevent.

An Acoustic Study of Persian Topic Constructions

Batool Alinezhad; Zeinab Homayouni; Rezvan Motavalian Naeini

Volume 13, Issue 2 , May 2023, , Pages 161-186

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2023.352355.666816

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to compare the prosodic structure of the different types of Persian topic constructions within the framework of the auto-segmental metrical phonology ... Read More The purpose of this research is to compare the prosodic structure of the different types of Persian topic constructions within the framework of the auto-segmental metrical phonology (Ladd, 2008) in order to answer the challenge of whether the initial position in these constructions is the result of base-generation or the result of the movement of the initial element. In this regard, following Cinque(1990), we examine the Persian topic constructions in the three categories of topicalization, clitic left dislocation (CLLD) and hanging topic left dislocation (HTLD) in order to determine whether the initial element in these constructions forms an independent intonational phrase or is a part of a larger intonational phrase involving the whole sentence. For this purpose, we compare the values of the phonetic parameter of initial element final syllable length and the amount of pause between this element and the continuation of the clause in different types of topic constructions. according to Pierrehumbert (1980: 20), if the lengthening of the final syllable of the target group and the duration of the pause between it and the next words are more than these values in the unmarked construction, that group forms an independent intonational phrase. The results show that in Persian topicalization and CLLD, these values are not significantly different from such values in the unmarked construction; Also, like the unmarked construction, the initial element in topicalization and CLLD is produced with H- boundary tone. These features can be seen as the phonetic correlation of the strong syntactic connection between the initial element and the continuation of the clause in these two constructions; A characteristic that indicates the movement of the element to the beginning of the clause. On the other hand, the more lengthening of the final syllable of the initial element and the greater amount of pause between this element and the continuation of the clause in HTLD compared to the unmarked construction, is evidence that the initial structure in this construction forms an independent intonational phrase; A characteristic that, along with L- boundary tone, is the phonetic representation of weak syntactic connection in this construction. This feature strengthens the assumption that HTLD is the result of the base-generation of the initial element. The results of this research show that the characteristics of topic constructions that affect the subject of sentence follow the same pattern of the characteristics of topic constructions from the object of sentence.

Hierarchies in Clause Linkage and Complex Sentence Continuum in Spoken Persian

Fateme Yegane; Farhad Sasani

Volume 14, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 161-192

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.366685.666863

Abstract

The inadequacy of previous definitions of the concepts of subordinate or dependent clauses, and coordinate or consistent clauses, along with terminological Inconsistency, and considering ... Read More The inadequacy of previous definitions of the concepts of subordinate or dependent clauses, and coordinate or consistent clauses, along with terminological Inconsistency, and considering all sentences containing relative clauses, complement clauses, and adverbial clauses in their construction as complex sentence in Persian language on one hand, and neglecting the possibility of hierarchical nature of clause linkage on the other hand causes a lot of dispersion in the definition of clause linking and complex sentence in previous research. In Persian language, in many cases, especially in speech, linkers (conjunctions) are not overt, which make the coordinate clauses and subordinate clauses alike on one hand and similar to independent clauses on the other hand. Conjunctions or linkers in clause linkage are also place of dispute, covering an inconsistent collection its items clearly different from each other. To address these issues, in a descriptive approach, a spoken corpus of 4500 minutes of various programs of different television and radio channels of National Media of Iran, in the period of Khordad 1400 to 1401 were examined. For data analysis in this research, no priori theoretical framework was used, but based on the collected data, with a prototypical and hierarchical approach, a model proposed for the study of clause linkage and complex sentence in Persian language. To achieve this goal, definition for different kind of clause linkage presented in the first place, then two concepts of “Clause connection” and “clause relation” were distinguished. And a triple distinction was established between intra-clausal linkage (within the same clause), inter-clausal linkage (between two clauses), and beyond-clause linkage. The concepts of coordination, dependency and subordination, then re-defined. The linkers utilizing in each linkage are also specified. Then by determining same parameters for describing both the coordinate and subordinate clauses, hierarchies in clause linkage and complex sentence continuum in spoken Persian presented.

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The Semantic Interaction of Negation with Epistemic and Deontic Ppossibility and Necessity in Persian Modal Verbs

Abstract

The Ranking and Interaction of Mollin’s Constraints in Persian Irreversible Binomials

Abstract

Pragmatic Aspects of Mægær (‘unless’/’but’) as a Discourse Marker in Persian

Abstract

Investigating the Concept of Mother Tongue in the Educational Documents and Examining its Manifestation in Society Based on the Critical Discourse Analysis Approach

Abstract

Constructive Process of Affirmative Negation and Its Practical Appearances in Persian and Kurdish Languages

Abstract

Investigating the Process of Postverbal Appearance of Restrictive Relative Clauses in Persian

Abstract

Coordination in Grammatical Phrases from Different Categories: Cognitive Grammar Perspective

Abstract

Agreement in Ergative Constructions in Hawrami; A Minimalist Approach

Abstract

Investigating Achievement and Accomplishment Aspects in Kalhori Kurdish: A Minimalistic Approach

Abstract

An Acoustic Study of Persian Topic Constructions

Abstract

Hierarchies in Clause Linkage and Complex Sentence Continuum in Spoken Persian

Abstract