Language Research

Abstract   The aim of this paper is to study Persian effect on the relative clause construction  of Azerbaijani. The data have been collected from the different contexts of Azerbaijani speakers’ speech in Ardabil province. At first the data were classified in two groups: head final relative clauses and head initial relative clauses. Then they were analyzed according to views common in language contact phenomenon including Heine (2006). So this research is descriptive-analytic. Azerbaijani allows the nouns with different  grammatical functions (subject, direct object, indirect object, object of postposition, genitive, object of comparison) to be relativized like other languages in the world.  In addition to head final relative clauses (common in Turkish languages), most of the data have been produced according to Persian relative clause structure (head initial pattern) by borrowing Persian “Ke” morpheme. Previous Azerbaijani language researchers have considered head initial relative clause as a borrowed structure from Persian to Azerbaijani. But the findings of this research show that head initial relative clause structure is an Azerbaijani native structure used in the special context limitedly without the appearance of Persian “Ke” morpheme. Persian and Azerbaijani can be considered as model and replica languages respectively in the language contact situation. Azerbaijani speakers use a strategy such as the extending strategy to increase the frequency of head initial relative clause structure matching that of Persian by borrowing Persian “Ke” morpheme, as Heine (2006) has showed the use of this strategy in the contact situation of some languages. Azerbaijani speakers choose among two alternative structures (head final and head initial relative clause structures), the one corresponding to Persian relative clause structure. Azerbaijani speakers’ extended use of head initial relative clauses is as a result of Azerbaijani convergence with Persian that is a common phenomenon due to the language contact occurring in multilingual societies

Abstract Object alternations involve different realizations of arguments, and are represented in three forms, including locative alternation, dative shift, and object-oblique alternation. Objects in object-oblique alternation are expressed in two different structures without fundamental changes in meaning. The second participant, in a transitive predicate, is either stated in a direct object position or in a preposition construction. The present paper investigates object-oblique alternation in Persian Aktionsart, based on Role and Reference Grammar. The objective of this study is twofold; firstly, to determine the im/possibility of object-oblique alternation in different classes of verbs, and secondly, to specify various readings of this alternation in verb classes consisting of states, activities, achievements, and accomplishments. The data are extracted from Persian newspapers, websites, and daily conversations. Data analysis denotes that some state verbs, including cognition, emotion, and possession verbs can be represented in object-oblique alternation. The alternate forms of cognition and possession verbs, refer to the kind of object in question. Alternation in sub-classes of activity verbs, that is, performance and consumption verbs, display total-partial interpretation. The alternative forms of creation verbs in this class, in the case of having a non-resultative verb, denote the kind of objects in question. Directed perception verbs, regardless of the parameter of object individuation, are represented in object-oblique alternation. Some achievement verbs may also be used in this alternation. Accomplishment verbs are rarely used in object-oblique alternation, except in cases where depending on the context, total-partial interpretation is intended. Generally speaking, the predicates that undergo object-oblique alternation share some characteristics; they are mostly non-state ones, their subjects are mainly agentive, and the objects are mostly low or non-affected. Furthermore, the verbs, which are more prone to object-oblique alternation, are chiefly non-resultative, and do not lead to fundamental changes in the object.

Abstract Ta’arof has a special place in the Iranian culture and its linguistic repesentations are various and considerable. Since Ta’arof expressions are used in interactive contexts by native speakers of Persian, it is expected that the intonation patterns of these expressions be affected by discourse factors and vary as a function of context. The present study adopts Brazil’s (1975, 1978, 1997) and Brazil et al.’s (1980) approach to intonation with the main purpose of investigating the intonation patterns of Ta’arofs in Persian. The distinguishing feature of Brazil’s approach to intonation is its focus on the effect of discoursal context on intonation patterns each with a meaning of its own. In his approach, “meaning” does not refer to attitudes such as “surprised” or “expectant”, nor to grammatical meanings such as “interrogative” or “declarative”. Rather, it refers to the interactive role of intonation i.e., constant evaluation of discourse by the speaker and choosing the appropriate intonation pattern to achieve coherence and cohesion in discourse. To this end, the intonation features of tone and the prominence level of the onset (key) and tonic (termination) syllables were annotated and analyzed using the Praat software in 29 Ta’arof expressions in the Iranian series Hayula. Results showed that the dominent tone in these expressions is level or fall. Keys were mostly mid or high, while terminations were mostly mid. Considering the fact that intonation patterns of each Ta’arof expression depends on its situational and discoursal context, the Taarof expression ̒Gorbunet beram̓ ‘(lit.) may I be sacrificed for you’ with 4 different representations was chosen and analysed as one of the most frequent Ta’arof expression in the corpus of this study. Results showed that Ta’arof expressions although fixed lexically and syntactically, show different intonation patterns due to the influence of social norms such as politeness, power relations, the prediction of listener’s judgment, and listener’s agreement expectation.

Abstract The aim of this paper is to study the verb borrowing of Persian based on matrix language frame model. Myers-scotton (1993-2006) proposed matrix language frame model due to eminent role of one language in the bilinguals’ speech. Only one language as matrix language determine morpho-syntactic patterns of sentences containing the elements of two languages according to uniform structure principle of matrix language frame model. The data is corpus-based and they have been collected from Persian speakers’ speech in different contexts. The research method is descriptive-analytic. At first, Persian verb and its inflectional morphemes were classified into: content morphemes (non-verbal elements in compound verbs and bare form of the verb in simple verbs) and late outside system morpheme (inflectional morphemes of the verb and light verbs) according to differential access hypothesis or 4-M model. Then the data were analyzed based on the principles and hypothesis of matrix language frame model. Persian is matrix language in all data due to uniform structure principle of matrix language frame model. Persian acting as matrix language has caused the inflectional morphemes of its verb have been added to non-Persian verbs entered Persian verb construction through light verb construction and indirect insertion process. Matrix language has caused inflectional morphemes of Persian verb activated and selected at formulation level to assign Persian morpho-syntactic frame on the sentences. So non-Persian verbs have been activated and selected at conceptual level as content morphemes. These content morphemes are realized as infinite verbs in Persian speakers’ speech to carry meaning. It seems there is a relation between different morpheme nature (their selection at different abstract level) and their transferring to other languages. Myers-scotton (1993-2006) emphasizes this relationship. As he has predicted matrix language frame model is efficient in explaining language contact phenomenon so more expansive studies can be based on it.

Abstract The notion of implicature was proposed by Grice (1975) who introduced two kinds of implicatures. Implicature is the level of meaning beyond the semantic meaning of the words uttered by the speaker or written by the writer. Neo-Griceans developed this notion more widely and proposed other types. An implicature is generated intentionally by the speaker and may (or may not) be understood by the hearer. Prosodic elements (pitch accent and its changes, pause, intensity, and duration) influence hearers' inferences in utterances having implicatures, and conveying different meanings. Therefore, we propose another class of implicatures namely “prosodic implicature”. It seems that some structures are grammatically underdetermined, i.e. the syntactic structure and lexical meaning are insufficient for determining their meanings, and the role of prosodic elements cannot be disregarded. Putting aside contextual effects, this paper argues in favor of the influence of prosodic elements. In a three-step experiment (a written test, and two listening tests with two different prosodic elements), 8 utterances having conversational or scalar implicatures were presented to 20 examinees  whose first language  was Persian, and all mastered the standard Persian. Findings show that in scalar implicatures, “duration” affects the hearer’s inferring the upper bounds (upper items in the scales) or the lower bounds (lower items in the scales). In conversational implicatures, “changes in pitch range” and “intensity changes” influence the hearer’s inference. Moreover, this paper shows that in absence of prosodic elements, i.e., in writings, some meanings are default for some structures, and readers base their inferences on those defaults. So, it seems that some meanings might be unmarked for some structures which leads to many misunderstandings in interpretation of written utterances as in text messaging like SMS and online chats.

Abstract Using the auditory-acoustic approach, the present study examines the possibility of using durational acoustic parameters of speech rhythm for detecting the Persian speakers’ use of Azeri as a form of voice disguise. To do so, continuous speech of 5 speakers of Standard Persian and 5 speakers of Azeri, Tabrizi variety, were chosen for the acoustic and statistical analysis after completing the validity procedures. All Persian speakers were monolingual and all Azeri speakers were bilingual speakers of Azeri and Persian, who spoke Azeri as their mother tongue and Persian as their second language. Each Persian speaker was asked to narrate a lifetime experience once in Persian (Persian- Persian data), and once as an imitation of Azeri (Persian- Azeri data). Azeri speakers were also asked to narrate a lifetime experience once in Azeri (Azeri- Azeri data) and once in Persian (Azeri-Persian Data). Persian-Azeri data is the type that is considered as the disguised data in this survey. The recorded data were then annotated in five tiers: segment, CV-segment, CV-segment interval, CV-interval and syllable. In order to control the effect of any unwanted variable, one minute (±5 seconds SD) of each sound file was extracted for further acoustic and statistical analyses. A Praat script, DurationAnalyzer, was used to automatically calculate the acoustic correlates of durational parameters of speech rhythm. These parameters are: %V (the proportion which speech is vocalic), ΔC (ln) (standard deviation of the natural-log normalized duration of consonantal intervals), ΔV (ln) (standard deviation of the natural-log normalized duration of vocalic intervals), nPVI- V (rate-normalized averaged durational differences between consecutive vocalic intervals) and syllable rate.  Results revealed there was a significant difference between the proposed types of data and that%V and syllable rate best discriminated between them; however, none of the above-mentioned parameters were significantly different between Persian-Azeri and Azeri-Persian data.

Abstract The aim of this research is to study the effect of Persian language on Azerbaijani compound verb construction. Data were collected from Azerbaijani resources and the interactions of 30 speakers of this language in Ardabil province (Ardabil, Meshkin Shahr and their surrounding regions). Native Azerbaijani compound verbs plus those borrowed from Persian were extracted from the collected data and their frequency was determined. The research method is descriptive-analytic, because at first the data were classified in the framework of the verb accommodation strategies in the borrowed language and they were analyzed according to the common approaches in language contact literature. Results show that no Persian finite verb has entered Azerbaijani language. Azerbaijani language uses two strategies to accommodate Persian finite verbs. The light verb construction and indirect insertion are two important strategies that Azerbaijani speakers use to accommodate Persian verbs. The frequency of light verb construction (Persian non-verbal element + Azerbaijani light verb) in the speakers’ speech is very high in comparison to indirect insertion strategy (Persian noun or adjective + Azerbaijani verb making affixes) and Azerbaijani native compound verbs. In spite of some previous studies considering Azerbaijani compound verbs as patterns borrowed from Persian, this research finding shows that light verb construction is not a new pattern in Azerbaijani and this construction exists in the language itself. Azerbaijani speakers use the extending strategy to increase the frequency of this construction matching that of Persian. Borrowed Persian non-verbal element causes Azerbaijani speakers to choose among alternative verb making constructions (Persian non-verbal element + Azerbaijani light verb and Persian noun or adjective + Azerbaijani verb making affixes) the one corresponding to Persian construction. This change resulting in Azerbaijani progressive convergence to Persian is a natural consequence of language contact.

Abstract The aim of this research is to study the borrowing of Persian conjunctions by speakers of Azerbayjani Turkish and its effect on their language. Data were collected from Azerbayjani Turkish resources and its speakers in Ardabil province. Data analysis based on linguistic and non-linguistic criteria of borrowing/code-switching differentiation shows that the majority of Persian conjunctions have been borrowed by Azerbayjani Turkish and some of them appear as code-switched elements in bilinguals’ speech. The findings correspond to Myers-Scotton’s view confirming borrowing/code-switching continuum as a mechanism for accomplishment of borrowing process. Speakers of Azerbayjani Turkish borrow Persian conjunctions to combine their language clauses. They do not substitute Persian compound sentence structures with those from their native language ones and they use the structures of both due to pragmatic reasons. The results match the second level of Thomason & Kaufman’s (1988) borrowing hierarchy supposing slight and limited changes to conjunction borrowing.

Abstract Wh-coordination is a descriptive term used to refer to configurations where two wh-constituents are conjoined. Wh-coordination bears descriptive resemblances to conventional coordination and multiple wh-questions. However, closer inspection of wh-coordination reveals that it is different in both semantic and syntactic respects. In terms of its semantics, wh-coordination yields a single-pair reading, as opposed to the pair-list reading forced by multiple wh-questions. As for its syntactic properties, wh-coordination violates the Coordination of the Likes Law (Williams 1987), as opposed to conventional coordination. To explain such intrinsic characteristics of wh-coordination, we will advance a syntactic analysis of such constructions in terms of Parallel Merge and Multidominance. Crucially, on the basis of their syntactic and semantic peculiarities, it is argued that clauses containing wh-coordination have a bi-clausal structure, with VPs and TPs parallel-merged, where each wh-constituent is merged within its respective dominating clause and consequently, the two clauses are conjoined in the CP level. Under this analysis, coordination of the wh-constituents is only apparent; the real coordination occurs at the CP level of clauses containing the wh-constituents. The superficial coordination of the wh-constituents is an epiphenomenon ensuing from the linearization of bi-clausal conjunction.

Abstract In this paper, the validity of the key prediction of Adaptive Dispersion Theory was tested. According to this prediction, vowels of a given language are organized in such a way that they are sufficiently distinct on the perceptual level. It implies that more crowded inventories, which also have wider F1 dimension, occupy greater vowel spaces than inventories with fewer vowels.  To investigate this hypothesis, the size of Persian vowel space with 6 peripheral vowels was compared with that of Fereydounkenari variety of Mazandarani dialect with 5 peripheral vowels, using the methodology introduced by Padgett and Tabain (2005) and three size indices proposed by Becker-Krystal (2010). Through rigorous statistical analysis, the sizes of vowel spaces were found to be positively correlated with the number of vowels in the inventory; that is, Persian has clearly greater vowel spaces in all groups, i.e., male and female stressed and unstressed contexts, than Mazandarani, but the number of peripheral vowels did not affect the F1 dimension. For an in-depth analysis, the three area indices were also calculated for back and front subspaces in those groups. The results indicated that only Persian male and female unstressed groups in back subspaces have greater F1_span than Mazandarani dialect. With few exceptions, then, the prediction of Adaptive Dispersion Theory was validated.

Abstract Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. All of the words in lexicon regardless of the apparent structure and the number of their syllables have their own stress. Given that the regularities governing stress assignment in Persian depend on the type of lexical category and that Persian speakers have a tendency to assign stress at the end of words, the goal of the present paper was to explore the patterns of stress assignment in Persian bound morphemes under the optimality theory. Data analysis was done by OT soft software (version 2.3.2). With regard to the data, it was concluded that the apparent difference between bound morphemes stress was due to the prosodic level at which they appear. The set of constraints involved in the analysis of Persian stress included: ALIGN R/L, WRAP & CLASH.

Abstract The phoneme /l/ is one of the phonemes of Persian, which has different origins. a few of which is unknown. This article studies the historical change of /l/ phoneme and phonemes and clusters which are the origins of /l/, from Proto Indo- European to Indo- Iranian, Old Iranian and Middle and new Persian. In adition, the historical change of other phonems such as group of consonants , which are origins of /l/ in new Persian has been studied. Finally, a few examples from /l/ in proto Indo- European and new Persian are introduced to classify of /l/ words in new Persian.