Language Research - Articles List

Research Paper

A Non-Lexicalist Analysis of the Imperfective Aspect and Its Interaction with the Perfective Aspect

Mazdak Anushe

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 1-28

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2025.373442.666880

Abstract

In the non-lexicalist approach to grammar, all morphemes, whether lexical elements or function heads, are pieces that merge within the domain of syntax to form larger constituents. ... Read More In the non-lexicalist approach to grammar, all morphemes, whether lexical elements or function heads, are pieces that merge within the domain of syntax to form larger constituents. Consequently, what is referred to as an affix is essentially a morpho-syntactic category that occupies the head of a functional projection and selects another category as its complement (Embick 2015). The present study, adopting such an approach, analyzes the structure of the imperfective aspect in Persian and its morpho-syntactic interaction with the derivation of the perfective aspect. The imperfective aspect, one of the two grammatical aspects in Persian, is embodied in structures traditionally called progressive and continuous verbs. Like the perfective aspect, this verbal construction is used in both present and past tenses, though in contemporary Persian, the imperfective, unlike its perfective counterpart which appears in indicative, subjunctive, and sometimes imperative moods, solely indicates the indicative mood. Throughout this research, we argue that a lexicalist analysis and a feature-based theory, especially where the interaction of the prefix "mi-" with causative and perfective suffixes (“-ɑn” and “de/-te”, respectively) is concerned, fail to account for the certain inflectional forms of the verbs. Framed within non-lexicalist approach and more in the spirit of Distributed Morphology (DM) we explore the construction of the imperfective aspect in Persian and examine the interaction of its prefix with other verbal inflectional elements. In this process, we argue that in the hierarchy of functional projections of sentence in Persian, the perfective projection merges above the imperfective projection. In this structure, the head of PerfP which has an overt auxiliary verb dominates the head of ProgP which hosts a covert grammatical verb in Persian. We will see that this speculation is reinforced by empirical evidence of cliticization of the perfect auxiliary (“bɑš” in Persian and “have” in English) in the present perfect continous sentences.

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Research Paper

Effect of Prosodic Cues on the disambiguation of syntactically ambiguous sentences

Zeynab Jafari; Batool Alinezhad; Rezvan Motavallian Naeini

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 29-52

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.375120.666882

Abstract

Many studies have shown the effect of prosodic cues on the disambiguation of syntactically ambiguous sentences. Following previous research, this study therefore tried to investigate ... Read More Many studies have shown the effect of prosodic cues on the disambiguation of syntactically ambiguous sentences. Following previous research, this study therefore tried to investigate how pitch and duration affect the disambiguation of the syntactic attachment differences (low attachment and high attachment) in Persian. To reach the purpose of this survey, two types of syntactically ambiguous strings with two different meanings were examined. Expressions Type 1 was composed of N1-N2-conj-N3 and Expressions Type 2 was composed of N1-conj-N2-Adj. In a speech production experiment, a total of 264 utterances were produced by 11 female Persian speakers (6 sentences × 2 conditions × 2 repetitions × 11 speakers). All the target expressions (conjoined noun phrases) were extracted, word-segmented by hand in Praat software, and subjected to phonetic analysis. The duration and mean f0 of the segmented words were measured and compared across two conditions. Differences in measurements were statistically analyzed by using Independent t-test. Generally, the outcomes of this paper supported the previous studies. The speakers resolved the ambiguity by significantly altering their production of the utterances in ways consistent with the intended meaning and structure. The statistical comparison revealed a higher pitch excursion on and a longer duration of the target noun phrases in low attachment condition as opposed to high attachment one. Specifically, in Expressions Type 1, the duration of N2, the conjunction, and N3 was longer and the mean f0 of the conjunction and N3 was higher in low attachment condition. In addition, a pause was produced between N2 and the conjunction to mark a prosodic boundary. In Expressions Type 2, N1 and N2 duration was longer and the mean f0 of the conjunction and N2 was higher in low attachment condition. Moreover, a pause was inserted between N1 and the conjunction to mark a prosodic boundary. In sum, the insertion of pauses, pre-boundary word lengthening, post-conjunction word lengthening, and f0 rise were used to disambiguate the utterances.

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Research Paper

Substitution of dental consonants in English and Arabic (loan)words by Persian speakers: A Comparative Study

Bashir Jam

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 53-70

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.378926.666889

Abstract

Sound substitution is a process whereby a phoneme in a loanword is replaced by its closest phone in the borrowing language. English and Arabic share dental consonants // and // ... Read More Sound substitution is a process whereby a phoneme in a loanword is replaced by its closest phone in the borrowing language. English and Arabic share dental consonants // and // which are absent in Persian. This comparative study aimed at explaining how these consonants are substituted by Persian speakers within the framework of optimality theory (Prince and Smolensky, 1993/2004). The findings of this research indicate that their substitution in English (loan)words depends on their position in the syllable; the dental consonants // and // are replaced by the dento-alveolar consonants [d] and [t] respectively in the syllable onset of (loan)words because they are the closest consonants to dentals. However, // changes to [s] in the coda position since the markedness constraint ‘LAZY’ which favors sounds produced with less energy prohibits the substitution of // by the more effortful stop consonant [t] in this syllable position. With regard to Arabic (loan)words, the substitution of the dental consonants // and // (which are represented by the graphemes <ذ> and <ث> respectively in Arabic orthography) depends on how these graphemes are pronunced in Persian. Therefore, this process cannot be explained using an analysis that is solely phonological. So, there is a need for an analysis which incorporates graphemes as well. Technically speaking, a constraint which has access to graphematical information is needed. Some optimality theory phonologists who came up with this need while working on other languages have already proposed orthographic constraints as the third type in addition to faithfulness and markedness constraints. Accordingly, the pronunciation of the graphemes <ذ> and <ث> in words adapted from Arabic by Persian was analysed using orthographic constraints which require these graphemes to be always pronunced [z] and [s] respectively. This comparative study presents arguments in favor of different constraint rankings which cause the occurances of these processes.

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Research Paper

Examining Persian Suffixes -ani, -ayi, and -al Based on Cognitive Morphology

Zahra Hasanpuran; shahla sharifi

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 71-97

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.380137.666891

Abstract

The aim of this article is to analyze the polysemy of the three suffixes "-ani, -ayi and -al" in Persian language with construction morphology framework. This analysis is based on Booij ... Read More The aim of this article is to analyze the polysemy of the three suffixes "-ani, -ayi and -al" in Persian language with construction morphology framework. This analysis is based on Booij construction morphology theory (2010, 2016) which is rooted in the cognitive linguistics school and especially the cognitive grammar theory (Langacker, 2008, 2009). In Booij’s (2010, 2016) construction morphology approach, language words are "constructions" whose meaning is the most important component in their structural analysis. Derivational affixes of Persian language, which include suffixes and prefixes and are numerous, have a good capacity to add new meanings to basic constructions and create a derivative word. The research data is extracted from Zansu Persian dictionary (Keshani, 1993). In order to investigate the polysemy of these suffixes, first we have designated the construction schemas and sub-schemes of the words containing the three mentioned suffixes, and then we have designed their polysemy network. Examining the research data showed that the words containing each of these three derivational suffixes, which are different from each other in terms of meaning and caused the polysemy of the named suffixes, are actually the result of different schemas and sub-schemas that are different in terms of form and meaning. The results of the research show that at the lowest level of the schema network of the "-ani" suffix, there are five different sub-schemas, two of which have a nominal base. Next two sub-schemas have prepositional base and at last, the last sub-schema has adjective base. At the lowest level of the schema network of the "-al" suffix, there are four sub-schemas which bases are from the categories of nouns, adjectives, or verb present stem. While the suffix "-ayi" has only two sub-schemes, one of which has a nominal base and the other has an adjective base. According to Booij’s (2010, 2016) construction morphology theory, the polysemy of these suffixes cannot be explained at the level of concrete words; Rather, this polysemy should be considered related to the level of constructional schemas, which are more abstract than the concrete words of the language.

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Research Paper

A Comparative Study of Scalar Implicature Comprehension in 5-7 Monolingual Persian-speaking Children and Adults

Arezou Khani; Ali Jamali; Tayebeh Khoshbakht

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 99-124

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.372068.666877

Abstract

Comparative study of scalar implicature comprehension in 5-7 mono-lingual Persian-speaking childrenResearch showed that children need two important pragmatic skills to understand Simile: ... Read More Comparative study of scalar implicature comprehension in 5-7 mono-lingual Persian-speaking childrenResearch showed that children need two important pragmatic skills to understand Simile: understanding the intended similarity and deriving a scalar implicature. However, the second skill has not been studied yet by Iranian researchers. The aim of the present study was to investigate the ability of mono-lingual Persian-speaking children aged 5 to 7 years old and adults in understanding scalar implicature. To this aim, 30 Persian-speaking children 5, 6 and 7 years old were selected through semi- random method and were compared with 10 adults. The groups were investigated and compared on a first experiment which was a form of similarity judgment task and on a second experiment, which was in a form of a game. In the first experiment, subjects should understand "x is like a y" as an expression of similarity. In the second experiment, the subjects received metaphors (“Nina is a rabbit”) and similes (“Nina is like a rabbit) as clues to select one of a three images (a rabbit, a girl or a rabbit-looking girl). The results showed that 5 years old children were able to understand the implicature “x is not a y”, whereas 6-7 years old children performed like adults. The results showed that children from the early childhood were able to understand and extract scalar implicature and the literal meaning of simile and metaphor decreased by increasing age.Taken together, the results of the research showed that preschool children from the age of 5 are able to understand graded implication and the performance of 7-year-old children is similar to the performance of adults. Also, one of the most important reasons that young children are able to extract graded implication in simile comprehension tasks compared to other graded expressions is that the frequency of categorical and comparative sentences in child-centered speech is high due to their educational role and their learning compared to other quantifiers. (such as some and all) or logical conjunctions (such as "or" and "and") occur earlierKeywords: Scalar implicature, simile, metaphor, mono-lingual Persian-speaking children.

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Research Paper

Matching Course Content with Learner Preferences in E-learning Systems Based on the Memetic Algorithm

mansoureh delaramifar; Tayebeh Sargazi Moghadam

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 125-156

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.379570.666890

Abstract

Since, due to the advancement of technology, mankind solves many of its educational needs, such as learning foreign languages, through electronic education, upgrading electronic learning ... Read More Since, due to the advancement of technology, mankind solves many of its educational needs, such as learning foreign languages, through electronic education, upgrading electronic learning systems with educational infrastructure become very important. Therefore, this research aims to introduce an efficient method to provide the most appropriate educational content for the learner by discovering her interests and preferences and adapting it to educational and cultural issues by using artificial intelligence techniques. In this regard, The present study uses a decision-making framework using a Memetic optimization algorithm to extract the best match between available learning paths and activities. It also provides the best possible response, which is the system's best decision for each individual's learning, using a linear formula and determining personal factors such as the learner's knowledge level and preferences. The resulting educational framework was tested on 40 students, 12-15 year old. In this experiment, a control group of 20 and an experimental group of 20 were considered, and the framework was given to the experimental group and the control group learned using traditional methods such as books. SPSS software was used for data analysis. In addition, in the last class session, a survey was used to examine the experimental group on issues such as interest in e-learning, willingness to continue the class, need for more breaks, and willingness to continue learning English in this way. The findings showed that the average post-test score of the control group after training through textbook-based content was 14.8750 and the average post-test score of the experimental group that was trained with diverse content considering the learner's preferences was 16.7500. On the other hand, the significance level test indicates that the use of an e-learning program based on learner preferences had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the experimental group, and as a result, it refers to the greater effect of e-learning with considering learner preferences compared to traditional learning.The final achievement was evaluated using multi-part software plugins from the point of view of flexibility, efficiency and interoperability through user satisfaction testing. Considering that more than seventy percent of users were satisfied with the learning efficiency and flexibility of the system, the results indicate that the system's output will have a more favorable effect on individual learning.

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Research Paper

Description and analysis of the linguistic components of the dispute resolution council members in persuading the parties to the dispute: critical analysis of the conciliation meetings discourse (legal linguistics approach)

Mitra Rezazadeh; Akram Korani; Ali Moradi

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 157-180

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.385054.666902

Abstract

The function of persuasion as a linguistic action is to change the audience's attitude and behavior or strengthen his beliefs. In general, persuasion is the basic and ultimate goal ... Read More The function of persuasion as a linguistic action is to change the audience's attitude and behavior or strengthen his beliefs. In general, persuasion is the basic and ultimate goal of all types of communication behaviors. This kind of persuasion is applied in the form of language tricks and the phenomenon of persuasion has an active presence in speech. The study of linguistic methods and tools involved in persuasion leads to the examination of the issue of power and how to dominate the mind, and this itself is the beginning of critical discourse analysis. Critical discourse analysis relies on methodological theories. The theory of Lac-La and Mouffe has presented a systematic formulation in this field. Discourse is the result of the communication and interaction of the speakers in a social and cultural context. Legal discourse, due to the inherent nature of communication with the audience through "language", contains various methods of persuasion, which discourse analysis can discover many of them. The Dispute Resolution Council, as a legal-judicial institution, has created a special legal discourse by using various functions of language as the main tool. The main goal of the current research is to analyze the legal discourse of this council and examine the role of linguistic knowledge in its persuasion methods. In this research, the data has been collected by field method and direct observation, from 20 sessions of conciliation branches of the Dispute Resolution Council of Islamabad Gharb city. The data includes a total of 1,273 parts of speech, which formed the linguistic body of the research and were analyzed in a descriptive-analytical way, based on the theory of Laclau and Mouffe. The research question is, what are the findings of linguistics based on the theory of Laclau and Mouffe that can be effective in the process of persuading the parties to the dispute in the discourse of the members of the dispute resolution council? The result of the research shows that in order to convince the parties to the dispute, the linguistic tools of highlighting, the relationship between the signifier and the signified, marginaliz(downplay) and hegemony, in descending order, have played an effective role in the discourse of the dispute resolution council members. In this discourse, the members of the council have used several effective words as persuasive elements by fixing the semantic system, each of which has specific meanings with specific signifiers.

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Research Paper

Explaining the Placement Order of Adjectives in Persian Language Based on Functional Discourse Grammar

Mohsen Taheri; Ali Alizadeh; Hamed Mowlaei Kuhbanani

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 181-210

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.370324.666875

Abstract

The purpose of the present research is to investigate the placement order of different types of adjectives in the sentence in Persian language based on Functional Discourse Grammar. ... Read More The purpose of the present research is to investigate the placement order of different types of adjectives in the sentence in Persian language based on Functional Discourse Grammar. Therefore, in this study, FDG will be considered in determining the arrangement of different types of adjectives in the sentence in Persian language. According to the principles of FDG, presenting a pattern in the arrangement of adjectives in a sentence in Persian language, in which the order of the adjectives in sentences does not follow a certain rule, is another goal of the present research. Although in Persian language, the order of adjectives does not follow a specific rule, the principles of FDG show that the type of the adjective determines that in what level of the hierarchical layer of FDG each adjective is produced and then based on what order it is mapped on morphosyntactic templates. In this study, the method of mapping the different types of adjectives on morphosyntactic templates in four absolute initial, second, medial and final positions and infinite relative positions in FDG was considered. This study is based on a descriptive-analytical method and the examples are taken from Persian adjectives. Examining the samples in this research shows that although the Persian language does not seem to have a particular order for the placement of adjectives in the sentence, the order pattern of adjectives in the sentence based on the mechanisms of FDG is also suggested for Persian language, since each adjective is produced in a special layer. The results indicate that the placement of adjectives in Persian language is based on the type of adjective and the production of each type of adjective takes place in its respective hierarchical layer. The results also show that FDG is an appropriate and efficient method for explaining the placement of adjectives in a sentence in Persian language and provides a suitable model for the placement of adjectives in a sentence in Persian language.

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Research Paper

The effect of phonetic levels of Arabic language in learning Arabic listening and speaking skills of non-Arabic speaking Iranians

Mohammad- Mahdi Gholami; Ali Zeighami; Sayed Reza Mirahmadi

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 211-237

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.380345.666892

Abstract

Persian and Arabic languages have phonetic, grammatical and lexical influences on each other in terms of vocabulary exchange and have similarities and differences in terms of phonetic ... Read More Persian and Arabic languages have phonetic, grammatical and lexical influences on each other in terms of vocabulary exchange and have similarities and differences in terms of phonetic system. Today, the Arabic language is considered as one of the six official languages of the United Nations and the first language of the Islamic world, which is learned by students of different countries, especially Iran. Arabic learners suffer from many phonetic errors at different stages of learning Arabic as a foreign language. Since the phonological system of the native language of the learners is imprinted in their minds by default, it is a natural phenomenon for non-native learners to make errors during the learning of the next language. At the phonetic level of the Arabic language, there are sounds that are different from their corresponding sounds in Farsi in terms of pronunciation and pronunciation; Among the Arabic letters " Θ ،ħ، ð، sˤ، dˤ، tˤ، ðˤ، ʕ، ɣ، w" which have become the closest equivalent sounds in the phonetic system of the Persian language due to their absence in the Persian language. Therefore, Arabic language learners of Farsi do not have sufficient skills in the field of listening and speaking as language output, but due to the lack of comparative analysis between different levels of Arabic and Persian, they usually suffer from the use of all when using Arabic. brand. Sublevels of the Arabic language at the phonetic level. Doubt, fear and finally despair of learning this language. The results of the investigation in the present study show that while learning a foreign language, the learner unconsciously tries to maintain the structure of his previous language due to adherence to his mother tongue and shows resistance to the new findings of the phonetic system of the language. . The purpose of this research is: first, to define and detail contrastive analysis, then to explain the phonetic system of Persian and Arabic languages, then to explain the types of interference, and finally to provide solutions and solutions to prevent interference. Based on the comparative analysis at the phonetic level, we came to the conclusion that after describing and then comparing and contrasting the two languages, as well as the order of the difficulty of pronouncing the sounds, the sounds that are in the fourth level (extreme differentiation) are the most difficult in teaching the sounds of the language.

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Research Paper

The patterns of Toponyms markazi porovince

zabihallah komijani bozcheloei; Maryam Sadat Ghiasian

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 239-268

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.380976.666895

Abstract

In knowing the culture and language of any place, the study of place names is very important. In this research, an attempt has been made to examine the patterns of place names in Central ... Read More In knowing the culture and language of any place, the study of place names is very important. In this research, an attempt has been made to examine the patterns of place names in Central Province based on the survey of national place names conducted in Australia. The theoretical approach in the concept of place names of this survey is based on the article of Tenet and Blair (2021). Surveying national place names in Australia is based on three key elements: identification, documentation and interpretation. The purpose of identifying a place name is to determine its linguistic form, the type of geographical feature (urban, plain, field, etc.) and its geographical location (latitude and longitude). The statistical sample in the current research is based on 225 place names of settlements in Central Province, which were selected from the statistical population of 1394 of the place names of settlements in Central Province for the field study of place names.The findings of the research show that the place names of the settlements in the central province were chosen based on the following factors: linguistic dispersion, population density, distance and historical background of the settlements. The images of each settlement are roughly determined based on 7 descriptive, participatory, naming, event, evaluation, copy and innovation images. The results show that the descriptive image has the highest percentage with 61.08% and includes 137 It is named, and then there are other patterns in the order: Participatory pattern (linking) with 47 placenames in the limit of 20.85%, Naming pattern with 20 placenames in about 9.79%, Event pattern with 18 placenames in about 7.84 percent, the evaluation model with a placeholder of about 0.44. The images of copying and innovation are without place names.Descriptive image has the highest percentage. Reviewing and analyzing the place names of the central province with global concepts, we have answered the classification questions according to the Excel table. The local category has the largest number and percentage of local place names in the descriptive image. In the central province, the investigation and biography of the location and motivation of the name givers is descriptive.

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Research Paper

An study of how Persian and Arabic spoken language is affected cognitively by physiological language

somayyeh mohammadi; Zohreh Ghorbani Madavani

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 269-293

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.367810.666866

Abstract

This research examines the cognitive study of Persian and Arabic languages in the domain of taste and its related product, namely flavors, with the aim of gaining insight into a portion ... Read More This research examines the cognitive study of Persian and Arabic languages in the domain of taste and its related product, namely flavors, with the aim of gaining insight into a portion of the understanding and perception that Persian and Arabic speakers derive through the gustatory domain. In this context, the study conducts a cognitive analysis of phrases that reflect the influence of the physiological function of taste on spoken language. The research method is descriptive-analytical and operates within the framework of cognitive semantics.The study of the data reveals that:These languages primarily utilize the gustatory domain to conceptualize the ideas of "testing and evaluation" and their resulting outcomes, such as feelings of satisfaction and pleasure or dissatisfaction and pain.The cognitive reality of the gustatory domain differs from the external and conventional reality of the sense of taste. In external reality, tasting is a sensory and temporary experience, where the tongue is the sole receptor, and it is relevant only to edibles. However, the cognitive mechanism extends this physical-gustatory experience to understand and conceptualize the environment and abstract concepts, "tasting" various experiences and phenomena! From tasting people's words, as in «شیرین‌سخن» ("sweet-tongued"), to describing someone as «گوشت‌تلخ» ("bitter-fleshed"). In this cognitive mechanism, the tongue is not the only receptor of taste; hearing can also create a taste, as in «با این خبر کاممون تلخ شد» ("this news left a bitter taste in our mouth"), and the heart "tastes" the sweetness of union, as in «به کام دل رسید» ("it reached the heart's desire"). Moreover, tasting is not limited to edibles; the eyes can be "شور" ("salty"), temperament can be "تند" ("hot"), and a facial expression can be "ترش" ("sour").One significant aspect of understanding the non-edible world through the lens of edibles is that these metaphorical correspondences allow us to think about our experiences and phenomena around us using the knowledge we have about flavors. For example, since "بانمکی" (saltiness) is desirable, interacting with a person perceived as "بانمک" (salty) is also understood as pleasant and desirable. In this way, the "saltiness" of the person in question can overshadow other undesirable traits they may have, just as the "saltiness" of a type of food can make its harmful aspects seem appealing. The conclusion is that flavor serves as a phenomenological and evaluative lens through which we interpret the nature of our experiences as a target domain.

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Research Paper

Analyzing Otherizing Discourse and Colonialism in Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe Novel

Mohammad Amin Mozaheb

Volume 15, Issue 2 , January 2025, Pages 295-310

https://doi.org/10.22059/jolr.2024.381721.666899

Abstract

At the beginning of the 18th century, with the act of the parliaments of England and Scotland, the four countries of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland were formed the Great Britain, ... Read More At the beginning of the 18th century, with the act of the parliaments of England and Scotland, the four countries of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland were formed the Great Britain, and the British identity was added to the people of these countries. Travelogue writing has been very important among nations since long ago. Many historians carefully examined the travelogues to learn about the native culture of other countries. Generally, the analysis of travelogues leads to the understanding of the hidden layers of different societies, which may not be easily understood and counted in historical books. Examining historical and political discourses is one of the issues that many researchers focused on colonial culture pursue in travelogues. Along with this union and with the advancement of sciences, the British took the first steps to become a colonial power. But in the first place, it was necessary to form the idea of empire in the minds of the British; Therefore, English authors and travel writers started to compose works whose themes were the discovery of distant lands, colonization and confrontation with the natives. One of these people was Daniel Defoe, who in his novel Robinson Crusoe (1719), which is one of the texts subject to reading in the course Novel 1, B.A. in English Language and Literature in Iran, depicted the adventures of Robinson Crusoe. In the novel, he managed not only to establish a colony for himself and achieved great wealth, but also became a slave owner in Latin America in the cotton fields. Although the current novel has been of great interest to those interested in fiction and colonial literature, a descriptive and analytical review can show wider aspects of this novel to the audience. Therefore, this research aims to analyze the above novel in light of postcolonial criticism to reveal the colonial discourse in the work, that is, the conquest of the natives and their reduction to others and colonial subjects. In other words, the research shows that otherness has been the focus of Defoe's work which can pave the way for researchers to decode hidden aspects in the aforementioned novel.

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Volume & Issue: Volume 15, Issue 2 - Serial Number 26, January 2025, Pages 1-310

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